Continuous Process for Producing Electrochemical Cells

ABSTRACT

A process for producing an electrochemical cell, comprising: (A) continuously depositing a wet cathode active material mixture onto a surface of a cathode current collector to form a cathode electrode, wherein the wet cathode active material mixture contains 30% to 85% by volume of a cathode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; (B) continuously depositing a wet anode active material mixture onto a surface of an anode current collector to form an anode electrode, wherein the wet anode active material mixture contains an anode active material and a conductive additive dispersed in a second electrolytes; and (C) combining the cathode electrode or a portion thereof and the anode electrode or a portion thereof to form the cell; wherein the anode electrode and/or the cathode electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the field of electrochemical cells and, in particular, to the process, method, or system for producing these cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Historically, today's most favorite rechargeable energy storage devices—lithium-ion batteries—actually evolved from rechargeable “lithium metal batteries” using lithium (Li) metal or Li alloy as the anode and a Li intercalation compound as the cathode. Li metal is an ideal anode material due to its light weight (the lightest metal), high electronegativity (−3.04 V vs. the standard hydrogen electrode), and high theoretical capacity (3,860 mAh/g). Based on these outstanding properties, lithium metal batteries were proposed 40 years ago as an ideal system for high energy-density applications. During the mid-1980s, several prototypes of rechargeable Li metal batteries were developed. A notable example was a battery composed of a Li metal anode and a molybdenum sulfide cathode. This and several other batteries were abandoned due to a series of safety problems caused by sharply uneven Li growth (formation of Li dendrites) as the metal was re-plated during each subsequent recharge cycle. As the number of cycles increases, these dendritic or tree-like Li structures could eventually traverse the separator to reach the cathode, causing internal short-circuiting.

To overcome these safety issues, several alternative approaches were proposed in which either the electrolyte or the anode was modified. One approach involved replacing Li metal by graphite (another Li insertion material) as the anode. The operation of such a battery involves shuttling Li ions between two Li insertion compounds, hence the name “Li-ion battery.” Presumably because of the presence of Li in its ionic rather than metallic state, Li-ion batteries are inherently safer than Li-metal batteries.

Lithium ion battery is a prime candidate energy storage device for electric vehicle (EV), renewable energy storage, and smart grid applications. The past two decades have witnessed a continuous improvement in Li-ion batteries in terms of energy density, rate capability, and safety, and somehow the significantly higher energy density Li metal batteries have been largely overlooked. However, the use of graphite-based anodes in Li-ion batteries has several significant drawbacks: low specific capacity (theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g as opposed to 3,860 mAh/g for Li metal), long Li intercalation time (e.g. low solid-state diffusion coefficients of Li in and out of graphite and inorganic oxide particles) requiring long recharge times (e.g. 7 hours for electric vehicle batteries), inability to deliver high pulse power (power density <<1 kW/kg), and necessity to use pre-lithiated cathodes (e.g. lithium cobalt oxide), thereby limiting the choice of available cathode materials. Further, these commonly used cathodes have a relatively low specific capacity (typically <200 mAh/g). These factors have contributed to the two major shortcomings of today's Li-ion batteries—low gravimetric and volumetric energy densities (typically 150-220 Wh/kg and 450-600 Wh/L) and low power densities (typically <0.5 kW/kg and <1.0 kW/L), all based on the total battery cell weight or volume.

The emerging EV and renewable energy industries demand the availability of rechargeable batteries with a significantly higher gravimetric energy density (e.g. demanding >>250 Wh/kg and, preferably, >>300 Wh/kg) and higher power density (shorter recharge times) than what the current Li ion battery technology can provide. Furthermore, the microelectronics industry is in need of a battery having a significantly larger volumetric energy density (>650 Wh/L, preferably >750 Wh/L) since consumers demand to have smaller-volume and more compact portable devices (e.g. smart phones and tablets) that store more energy. These requirements have triggered considerable research efforts on the development of electrode materials with a higher specific capacity, excellent rate capability, and good cycle stability for lithium ion batteries.

Several elements from Group III, IV, and V in the periodic table can form alloys with Li at certain desired voltages. Therefore, various anode materials based on such elements and some metal oxides have been proposed for lithium ion batteries. Among these, silicon has been recognized as one of the next-generation anode materials for high-energy lithium ion batteries since it has a nearly 10 times higher theoretical gravimetric capacity than graphite 3,590 mAh/g based on Li_(3.75)Si vs. 372 mAh/g for LiC₆) and ˜3 times larger volumetric capacities. However, the dramatic volume changes (up to 380%) of Si during lithium ion alloying and de-alloying (cell charge and discharge) often led to severe and rapid battery performance deterioration. The performance fade is mainly due to the volume change-induced pulverization of Si and the inability of the binder/conductive additive to maintain the electrical contact between the pulverized Si particles and the current collector. In addition, the intrinsic low electric conductivity of silicon is another challenge that needs to be addressed.

Although several high-capacity anode active materials have been found (e.g., Si), there has been no corresponding high-capacity cathode material available. Current cathode active materials commonly used in Li-ion batteries have the following serious drawbacks:

-   -   (1) The practical capacity achievable with current cathode         materials (e.g. lithium iron phosphate and lithium transition         metal oxides) has been limited to the range of 150-250 mAh/g         and, in most cases, less than 200 mAh/g.     -   (2) The insertion and extraction of lithium in and out of these         commonly used cathodes rely upon extremely slow solid-state         diffusion of Li in solid particles having very low diffusion         coefficients (typically 10⁻⁸ to 10⁻¹⁴ cm²/s), leading to a very         low power density (another long-standing problem of today's         lithium-ion batteries).     -   (3) The current cathode materials are electrically and thermally         insulating, not capable of effectively and efficiently         transporting electrons and heat. The low electrical conductivity         means high internal resistance and the necessity to add a large         amount of conductive additives, effectively reducing the         proportion of electrochemically active material in the cathode         that already has a low capacity. The low thermal conductivity         also implies a higher tendency to undergo thermal runaway, a         major safety issue in lithium battery industry.

As a totally distinct class of energy storage device, sodium batteries have been considered an attractive alternative to lithium batteries since sodium is abundant and the production of sodium is significantly more environmentally benign compared to the production of lithium. In addition, the high cost of lithium is a major issue and Na batteries potentially can be of significantly lower cost.

There are at least two types of batteries that operate on bouncing sodium ions (Na⁺) back and forth between an anode and a cathode (in terms of the anode active material type used): the sodium metal battery having Na metal or alloy as the anode active material and the sodium-ion battery having a Na intercalation compound as the anode active material. Sodium ion batteries using a hard carbon-based anode active material (a Na intercalation compound) and a sodium transition metal phosphate as a cathode have been described by several research groups; e.g. J. Barker, et al. “Sodium Ion Batteries,” U.S. Pat. No. 7,759,008 (Jul. 20, 2010).

However, these sodium-based devices exhibit even lower specific energies and rate capabilities than Li-ion batteries. The anode active materials for Na intercalation and the cathode active materials for Na intercalation have lower Na storage capacities as compared with their Li storage capacities. For instance, hard carbon particles are capable of storing Li ions up to 300-360 mAh/g, but the same materials can store Na ions up to 150-250 mAh/g and less than 100 mAh/g for K ion storage.

Instead of hard carbon or other carbonaceous intercalation compound, sodium metal may be used as the anode active material in a sodium metal cell. However, the use of metallic sodium as the anode active material is normally considered undesirable and dangerous due to the dendrite formation, interface aging, and electrolyte incompatibility problems.

Low-capacity anode or cathode active materials are not the only problem that the alkali metal-ion battery industry faces. There are serious design and manufacturing issues that the lithium-ion battery industry does not seem to be aware of, or has largely ignored. For instance, despite the high gravimetric capacities at the electrode level (based on the anode or cathode active material weight alone) as frequently claimed in open literature and patent documents, these electrodes unfortunately fail to provide batteries with high capacities at the battery cell or pack level (based on the total battery cell weight or pack weight). This is due to the notion that, in these reports, the actual active material mass loadings of the electrodes are too low. In most cases, the active material mass loadings of the anode (areal density) is significantly lower than 15 mg/cm² and mostly <8 mg/cm² (areal density=the amount of active materials per electrode cross-sectional area along the electrode thickness direction). The cathode active material amount is typically 1.5-2.5 times higher than the anode active material. As a result, the weight proportion of the anode active material (e.g. graphite or carbon) in a lithium-ion battery is typically from 12% to 17%, and that of the cathode active material (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) from 17% to 35% (mostly <30%). The weight fraction of the cathode and anode active materials combined is typically from 30% to 45% of the cell weight

The low active material mass loading is primarily due to the inability to obtain thicker electrodes (thicker than 100 μm on each of the two sides of a current collector foil) using the conventional slurry coating procedure. This is not a trivial task as one might think, and in reality the electrode thickness is not a design parameter that can be arbitrarily and freely varied for the purpose of optimizing the cell performance. Contrarily, thicker samples tend to become extremely brittle or of poor structural integrity and would also require the use of large amounts of a binder resin. The low areal densities and low volume densities (related to thin electrodes and poor packing density) result in a relatively low volumetric capacity and low volumetric energy density of the battery cells. Sodium-ion batteries and potassium-ion batteries have similar problems.

Batteries are typically constructed of electrodes, separators, electrolyte, and ancillary components such as packaging, thermal management, cell balancing, current carriers, and terminals (tabs). The conventional battery manufacturing methods (using a lithium-ion battery as an example) generally involve complicated and expensive manufacturing steps, such as (a) mixing anode active material powder, a conductive additive, and a binder resin in a liquid electrolyte to form an anode slurry; (b) coating the anode slurry onto one side or both sides of an anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil); (c) drying the coated anode slurry to form an anode electrode; (d) mixing cathode active material powder, a conductive additive, and a binder resin in a liquid electrolyte to form a cathode slurry; (e) coating the cathode slurry onto one side or both sides of a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil); (f) drying the coated cathode slurry to form a cathode electrode; (g) cutting and slitting an anode electrode into pieces of anode layer and cutting and slitting a cathode electrode into pieces of cathode layer; (h) laminating an anode layer, a porous separator layer, and a cathode layer into a unit cell structure of a desired shape; (i) encasing the unit cell structure in a protective housing; (j) injecting a liquid electrolyte into the housing and then sealing the cell.

These methods are only suitable for electrodes (anode or cathode) of limited thickness, typically less than 100 μm, mainly due to the notion that drying a thicker electrode would require a heating zone typically longer than 60-100 meters for each type of electrode. Such requirements mean huge floor spaces, expensive capital equipment, high energy costs, and long production time. Additionally, these known methods for producing electrodes of limited thickness result in batteries with lower capacity, lower energy density, and a high ratio of inactive components to active material. In other words, the non-energy storage elements of the finished device, that is the separator and current collector, comprise a relatively high fixed volume or mass fraction of the energy storage device, thereby decreasing the overall energy density of the device.

With the growing demand for more compact and portable energy storage systems, there is keen interest to increase the utilization of the volume of the batteries. Novel electrode materials and designs that enable high volumetric capacities and high mass loadings are essential to achieving improved cell volumetric capacities and energy densities for alkali metal batteries.

Therefore, there is clear and urgent need for alkali metal batteries, alkaline earth metal batteries and other types of metal batteries that have high active material mass loading (high areal density), active materials with high apparent density (high tap density), high electrode thickness without significantly decreasing the electron and ion transport rates (e.g. without a high electron transport resistance or long lithium or sodium ion diffusion path), high volumetric capacity, and high volumetric energy density.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a process for producing an electrochemical cell (e.g. a battery or lithium-ion capacitor) having a high active material mass loading, exceptionally low overhead weight and volume (relative to the active material mass and volume), high volumetric capacity, and unprecedentedly high volumetric energy density and power density. This battery metal battery can be a primary battery (non-rechargeable) or a secondary battery (rechargeable), including a rechargeable alkali metal battery (having a lithium, sodium, or potassium metal anode) and an alkali metal-ion battery (e.g. having a first lithium or sodium intercalation compound as an anode active material and a second lithium or sodium intercalation or absorbing compound, having a much higher electrochemical potential than the first one, as a cathode active material). The electrochemical potential of the cathode active material in a battery of the instant invention is higher than that of the anode active material by at least 1.0 volt, preferably at least 1.5 volts, further preferably at least 2.0 volts, more preferably at least 3.0 volts, even more preferably at least 3.5 volts, and most preferably at least 4.0 volts.

In some embodiments, the invention provides a process for producing an electrochemical cell. The process comprises: (A) continuously depositing a wet cathode active material mixture onto at least a surface of a cathode current collector to form a wet cathode electrode (electrode remaining wet; the liquid solvent in the electrolyte not fully removed), wherein the wet cathode active material mixture preferably contains 30% to 85% by volume of a cathode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; (B) continuously depositing a wet anode active material mixture onto at least a surface of an anode current collector to form a wet anode electrode, wherein the wet anode active material mixture contains 30% to 85% by volume of an anode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a second liquid or polymer gel electrolytes; and (C) combining the wet cathode electrode or a portion thereof and the wet anode electrode or a portion thereof to form an electrochemical cell or multiple electrochemical cells; wherein the anode electrode and/or the cathode electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm. Each cathode electrode may be cut and slit into multiple pieces of cathode layers and each anode electrode may be cut and slit into multiple pieces of anode layers. A cathode layer and an anode layer (along with a separator disposed between the two layers) may be assembled into a battery cell.

In certain embodiments, in the above process, step (A) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, the wet cathode active material mixture to the at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery; and/or wherein step (B) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, the wet anode active material mixture to the at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery.

In certain embodiments, either the anode electrode or the cathode electrode is made by using the presently invented direct mixture deposition method. For instance, in one embodiment, the cathode is produced by the instant process but the anode can be produced by a different process. In this embodiment, the process comprises: (A) continuously or non-continuously depositing a wet cathode active material mixture onto at least a surface of a cathode current collector to form a wet cathode electrode, wherein the wet cathode active material mixture contains a cathode active material, an optional conductive additive, and a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; wherein the cathode electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm; (B) introducing an anode electrode having an anode current collector that has two opposed primary surfaces wherein at least one of the two primary surfaces is deposited with a layer of an anode active material; and (C) combining the wet cathode electrode or a portion thereof and the anode electrode or a portion thereof to form an electrochemical cell. In this process, step (A) preferably includes delivering the wet cathode active material mixture, continuously or intermittently on demand, to the at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery.

In another embodiment, the anode is produced by the instant process but the cathode can be produced by a different process. In this embodiment, the process comprises: (A) continuously or non-continuously depositing a wet anode active material mixture onto at least a surface of an anode current collector to form an anode electrode, wherein the wet anode active material mixture contains an anode active material, an optional conductive additive, and a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; wherein the anode electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm; (B) introducing a cathode electrode having a cathode current collector that has two opposed primary surfaces wherein at least one of the two primary surfaces is deposited with a layer of a cathode active material; and (C) combining the cathode electrode or a portion thereof and the wet anode electrode or a portion thereof to form an electrochemical cell.

In any of the above versions of the process, step (C) may comprise continuously laminating the anode electrode, a separator layer, and the cathode electrode into a multi-layer laminated electrochemical cell having a length greater than 10 cm, preferably >100 cm, and further preferably >100 meters; there is no theoretical limitation on the length of the laminated cell, which is limited by the length of the anode current collector or the length of the cathode current collector.

Alternatively, step (C) comprises cutting the anode electrode into multiple anode layers and cutting the cathode electrode into multiple cathode layers and assembling at least an anode layer and at least a cathode layer to form an electrochemical cell. Multiple cells can be made this way.

The cathode electrode thickness or the anode electrode thickness is preferably >250 μm, further preferably >300 μm, more preferably >400 μm; further more preferably >500 μm, still more preferably >600 μm, or even >1,000 μm; no theoretical limitation on the thickness of the presently invented electrode.

In any version of the invented process, the wet cathode active material mixture and/or the wet anode active material mixture may contain a polymer binder. The first polymer gel electrolyte or the second polymer gel electrolyte may contain a reactive monomer or oligomer that gets polymerized or cured after the cathode electrode or the anode electrode is formed.

In certain embodiments, the first polymer gel electrolyte contains a polymer that bonds particles of the cathode active material together or bonds particles of the cathode active material to the cathode current collector when the cathode electrode is formed. In certain embodiments, the second polymer gel electrolyte contains a polymer that bonds particles of the anode active material together or bonds particles of the anode active material to the anode current collector when the anode electrode is formed.

In certain embodiments, the first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte or the second liquid or polymer gel electrolyte contains greater than 2.5 M (typically from 2.5 M to 12 M) of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent. Preferably, the salt concentration is greater than 3.5 M, more preferably greater than 5.0 M, and further preferably greater than 7.0 M. It is unexpected that with such high salt concentrations one is still capable of delivering and depositing the wet anode active material mixture or the wet cathode active material mixture onto a current collector surface to form an electrode that is uniform in thickness and of structural integrity (can be mechanically handled with ease without breaking). Such a high-concentration electrolyte (herein referred to as a quasi-solid electrolyte) also makes the electrolyte non-flammable, a highly desirable attribute to a battery, such as lithium-ion battery and sodium ion battery.

Electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries and sodium ion batteries are known to typically contain less than 2.0 M of a lithium salt or sodium salt in a liquid solvent; one simply cannot dissolve a higher concentration of salt in the solvent. In these situations, one can initially use a higher amount of the liquid solvent (lower initial salt concentration) to enable the flowability and film-forming ability of the wet electrode active material (e.g. using dispensing and coating). Once the electrode layer (either anode or cathode) is formed, some amount of the liquid solvent is removed to increase the salt concentration above 2.5 M. The liquid solvent can be a mixture of two or more liquid solvents; one of the liquid solvents is more volatile than the other(s), enabling removal of some of the solvent.

Thus, in certain embodiments, the first liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₁, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to the sub-step of depositing a wet cathode active material mixture and step (A) includes a procedure of removing a portion of the liquid solvent after deposition of the wet mixture to increase the metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₂, wherein M₂>M₁.

In certain embodiments, the second liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₃, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to depositing the wet anode active material mixture and step (B) includes a procedure of removing a portion of the liquid solvent after the depositing step to increase the metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₄, wherein M₄>M₃.

The electrochemical cell may be an alkali metal battery wherein the anode active material is alkali metal or alloy (metal or alloy of Li, Na, K, Cs, or a combination thereof). The anode electrode of this alkali metal battery is basically composed of a solid current collector (e.g. Cu foil) coated with a thin film of Li, Na, Li metal alloy, or Na metal alloy, etc.

In some embodiments wherein the electrochemical cell is a lithium-ion battery or lithium-ion capacitor, the anode active material may be selected from the group consisting of: (a) particles of natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-carbon microbeads (MCMB), and carbon; (b) Silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), iron (Fe), and cadmium (Cd); (c) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, or Cd with other elements, wherein said alloys or compounds are stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric; (d) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Ti, Mn, or Cd, and their mixtures or composites; (e) Pre-lithiated versions thereof; and (f) pre-lithiated graphene sheets; and combinations thereof.

There is no restriction on the types of anode active materials or cathode active materials that can be used in practicing the instant invention. However, preferably, the anode active material absorbs lithium ions at an electrochemical potential of less than 1.0 volt (preferably less than 0.7 volts) above the Li/Li⁺ (i.e. relative to Li→Li⁺+e⁻ as the standard potential) when the battery is charged. The anode active material for Na-ion or K-ion battery can be similarly chosen.

In a preferred embodiment, the anode active material is a pre-lithiated, pre-sodiated or pre-potassiated version of graphene sheets selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof. The starting graphitic material for producing any one of the above graphene materials may be selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-phase carbon, meso-phase pitch, meso-carbon micro-bead, soft carbon, hard carbon, coke, carbon fiber, carbon nano-fiber, carbon nano-tube, or a combination thereof. Graphene materials are also a good conductive additive for both the anode and cathode active materials of an alkali metal battery.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell is a sodium-ion battery or sodium-ion capacitor and the anode active material contains an alkali intercalation compound selected from petroleum coke, carbon black, amorphous carbon, activated carbon, hard carbon, soft carbon, templated carbon, hollow carbon nanowires, hollow carbon sphere, titanates, NaTi₂(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇, Na₂C₈H₄O₄, Na₂TP, Na_(x)TiO₂ (x=0.2 to 1.0), Na₂C₈H₄O₄, carboxylate based materials, C₈H₄Na₂O₄, C₈H₆O₄, C₈H₅NaO₄, C₈Na₂F₄O₄, C₁₀H₂Na₄O₈, C₁₄H₄O₆, C₁₄H₄Na₄O₈, or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell is a sodium-ion battery, sodium-ion capacitor, or potassium-ion battery and the anode active material contains an alkali intercalation compound selected from the following groups of materials: (a) sodium- or potassium-doped silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), and mixtures thereof; (b) sodium- or potassium-containing alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Co, Ni, Mn, Cd, and their mixtures; (c) sodium- or potassium-containing oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, tellurides, or antimonides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ti, Co, Ni, Mn, Cd, and mixtures or composites thereof; (d) Sodium or potassium salts; and (e) graphene sheets pre-loaded with sodium ions or potassium ions.

In some embodiments, the cathode active material contains a lithium intercalation compound or lithium absorbing compound selected from the group consisting of lithium cobalt oxide, doped lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, doped lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, doped lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, doped lithium vanadium oxide, lithium mixed-metal oxides, lithium iron phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium mixed-metal phosphates, metal sulfides, lithium polysulfide, sulfur, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the cathode active material contains a sodium intercalation compound or a potassium intercalation compound selected from NaFePO₄, Na_((1-x))K_(x)PO₄, KFePO₄, Na_(0.7)FePO₄, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na₂FePO₄F, NaFeF₃, NaVPO₄F, KVPO₄F, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, NaV₆O₁₅, Na_(x)VO₂, Na_(0.33)V₂O₅, Na_(x)CoO₂, Na_(2/3)[Ni_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, Na_(x)(Fe_(1/2)Mn_(1/2))O₂, Na_(x)MnO₂, λ-MnO₂, Na_(x)K_((1-x))MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂/C, Na₄Mn₉O₁₈, NaFe₂Mn(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇, Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3)O₂, Cu_(0.56)Ni_(0.44)HCF, NiHCF, Na_(x)MnO₂, NaCrO₂, KCrO₂, Na₃Ti₂(PO₄)₃, NiCo₂O₄, Ni₃S₂/FeS₂, Sb₂O₄, Na₄Fe(CN)₆/C, NaV_(1-x)Cr_(x)PO₄F, Se_(z)S_(y) (y/z=0.01 to 100), Se, sodium polysulfide, sulfur, Alluaudites, or a combination thereof, wherein x is from 0.1 to 1.0.

In general, the first liquid electrolyte and the second liquid electrolyte are identical in a battery, but they can be different in composition. The liquid electrolytes can be an aqueous liquid electrolyte, but preferably a non-aqueous organic liquid electrolyte, ionic liquid electrolyte (ionic salt having a melting temperature lower than 100° C., preferably lower than room temperature, 25° C.), or a mixture of an ionic liquid and an organic liquid at a ratio from 1/100 to 100/1. The organic liquid is desirable, but the ionic liquid is preferred.

In certain embodiments, the electrolyte is a polymer gel electrolyte containing a metal salt dispersed in a polymer, which is impregnated with or dissolved in a liquid solvent. A polymer gel electrolyte is not a liquid electrolyte.

In a preferred embodiment, the wet anode and/or cathode electrodes have a thickness no less than 250 μm; the anode active material has a mass loading no less than 25 mg/cm² and/or occupies at least 25% by weight or by volume of the entire battery cell; the cathode active material has a mass loading no less than 20 mg/cm² for an organic or polymer material or no less than 40 mg/cm² for an inorganic and non-polymer material in the cathode and/or occupies at least 40% by weight or by volume of the entire battery cell.

In another preferred embodiment, the consolidated anode and/or cathode electrodes have a thickness no less than 300 μm; the anode active material has a mass loading no less than 30 mg/cm² and/or occupies at least 30% by weight or by volume of the entire battery cell, and/or the cathode active material has a mass loading no less than 25 mg/cm² for an organic or polymer material or no less than 50 mg/cm² for an inorganic and non-polymer material in said cathode and/or occupies at least 50% by weight or by volume of the entire battery cell.

More preferably, the consolidated anode and/or cathode electrodes have a thickness no less than 400 μm; and/or the anode active material has a mass loading no less than 35 mg/cm² and/or occupies at least 35% by weight or by volume of the entire battery cell, and/or the cathode active material has a mass loading no less than 30 mg/cm² for an organic or polymer material or no less than 55 mg/cm² for an inorganic and non-polymer material in the cathode and/or occupies at least 55% by weight or by volume of the entire battery cell.

The aforementioned requirements on electrode thickness, the anode active material areal mass loading or mass fraction relative to the entire battery cell, or the cathode active material areal mass loading or mass fraction relative to the entire battery cell have not been possible with conventional lithium batteries using the conventional process of slurry coating and drying.

In some embodiments, the anode active material is a pre-lithiated version of graphene sheets selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, boron-doped graphene, nitrogen-doped graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, a physically or chemically activated or etched version thereof, or a combination thereof. Surprisingly, without pre-lithiation, the resulting lithium battery cell does not exhibit a satisfactory cycle life (i.e. capacity decays rapidly).

Preferably, the volume ratio of the anode active material-to-liquid electrolyte in the wet anode active material mixture is from 1/5 to 20/1 (preferably from 1/3 to 10/1) and/or the volume ratio of cathode active material-to-the liquid electrolyte in the wet cathode active material mixture is from 1/5 to 20/1 (preferably from 1/3 to 10/1).

In some embodiments, the cathode active material in the electrochemical cell (e.g. alkali metal battery) contains an alkali metal intercalation compound or alkali metal-absorbing compound selected from an inorganic material, an organic or polymeric material, a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide, or a combination thereof. For example, the metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material is selected from sulfur, sulfur compound, lithium polysulfide, transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. In particular, the inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof. These will be further discussed later.

In some embodiments, the cathode active material contains an alkali metal intercalation compound selected from a metal carbide, metal nitride, metal boride, metal dichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cathode active material contains an alkali metal intercalation compound selected from an oxide, dichalcogenide, trichalcogenide, sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, vanadium, chromium, cobalt, manganese, iron, or nickel in a nanowire, nano-disc, nano-ribbon, or nano platelet form. Preferably, the cathode active material contains a lithium intercalation compound selected from nano discs, nano platelets, nano-coating, or nano sheets of an inorganic material selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof; wherein these discs, platelets, or sheets have a thickness less than 100 nm.

In some embodiments, the cathode active material in this alkali metal battery is an organic material or polymeric material selected from Poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, Quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, Hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), Hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-Benzylidene hydantoin, Isatine lithium salt, Pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAM), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.

The thioether polymer is selected from Poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing Poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, Poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), Poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

In a preferred embodiment, the cathode active material is an organic material containing a phthalocyanine compound selected from copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1(A) schematic of a prior art lithium-ion battery cell (as an example of an alkali metal battery) composed of an anode current collector, an anode electrode (e.g. thin Si coating layer), a porous separator, a cathode electrode (e.g. sulfur layer), and a cathode current collector;

FIG. 1(B) schematic of a prior art lithium-ion battery, wherein the electrode layer is composed of discrete particles of an active material (e.g. graphite or tin oxide particles in the anode layer or LiCoO₂ in the cathode layer).

FIG. 1(C) An example that schematically illustrates the presently invented process for producing an electrode (anode or cathode) and an electrochemical cell (e.g. an alkali metal battery).

FIG. 2(A) Schematic of a commonly used process for producing exfoliated graphite, expanded graphite flakes (thickness >100 nm), and graphene sheets (thickness <100 nm, more typically <10 nm, and can be as thin as 0.34 nm).

FIG. 2 (B) Schematic drawing to illustrate the processes for producing exfoliated graphite, expanded graphite flakes, and graphene sheets.

FIG. 3 Ragone plots (gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. energy density) of lithium-ion battery cells containing graphite particles as the anode active material, carbon-coated LFP particles as the cathode active materials, and a polymer gel electrolyte. Two of the 4 data curves are for the cells prepared according to an embodiment of instant invention and the other two by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes (roll-coating).

FIG. 4 Ragone plots (both gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. gravimetric and volumetric energy density) of two cells, both containing graphene-embraced Si nano particles as the anode active material and LiCoO₂ nano particles as the cathode active material. The experimental data were obtained from the Li-ion battery cells that were prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes.

FIG. 5 Ragone plots of lithium metal batteries containing a lithium foil as the anode active material, dilithium rhodizonate (Li₂C₆O₆) as the cathode active material, and lithium salt (LiPF₆)—PC/DEC as organic liquid electrolyte. The data are for both lithium metal cells prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes.

FIG. 6 The cell-level gravimetric (Wh/kg) and volumetric energy densities (Wh/L) of lithium metal cells plotted over the achievable cathode thickness range of the MnO₂/RGO cathode prepared via the conventional method without delamination and cracking and those by the presently invented method. In this figure, the data points are labelled as the gravimetric (♦) and volumetric (▴) energy density of the conventional Li—MnO₂/RGO batteries and the gravimetric (▪) and volumetric (x) energy density of the presently invented ones.

FIG. 7 The cell-level gravimetric and volumetric energy densities of the graphite/NMC cells prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional roll-coating method.

FIG. 8 Ragone plots (gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. energy density) of Na-ion battery cells containing hard carbon particles as the anode active material and carbon-coated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃ particles as the cathode active materials. Two of the 4 data curves are for the cells prepared according to an embodiment of instant invention and the other two by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes (roll-coating).

FIG. 9 Ragone plots (both gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. gravimetric and volumetric energy density) of two cells, both containing graphene-embraced Sn nano particles as the anode active material and NaFePO₄ nano particles as the cathode active material. The data are for both sodium-ion cells prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes.

FIG. 10 Ragone plots of sodium metal batteries containing a graphene-supported sodium foil as the anode active material, disodium rhodizonate (Na₂C₆O₆) as the cathode active material, and sodium salt (NaPF₆)—PC/DEC as organic liquid electrolyte. The data are for both sodium metal cells prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes.

FIG. 11 Ragone plot of a series of K-ion cells prepared by the conventional slurry coating process and the Ragone plot of corresponding K-ion cells prepared by the presently invented process.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of the invention taken in connection with the accompanying drawing figures, which form a part of this disclosure. It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the specific devices, methods, conditions or parameters described and/or shown herein, and that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments by way of example only and is not intended to be limiting of the claimed invention.

Electrochemical cells herein mainly refer to alkali metal cells (e.g. Li metal, Na metal, Li—S, etc.), alkali ion cells (e.g. Li-ion, Na-ion, K-ion cells), alkaline earth metal cells, alkaline metal ion cells (e.g. Mg-ion cell), lithium-ion capacitor, and sodium-ion capacitor, etc.

This invention is directed at a process for producing an electrochemical cell (e.g. alkali metal battery) exhibiting an exceptionally high volumetric energy density that has never been previously achieved for the same type of battery. This alkali metal battery can be a primary battery, but is preferably a secondary battery selected from a lithium-ion battery or a lithium metal secondary battery (e.g. using lithium metal as an anode active material), a sodium-ion battery, a sodium metal battery, a potassium-ion battery, or a potassium metal battery. The battery is based on a non-aqueous electrolyte; e.g. an organic electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, an ionic liquid electrolyte, or a mixture of organic and ionic liquid. The final shape of the metal battery can be cylindrical, square, button-like, etc. The present invention is not limited to any battery type, shape, or configuration.

For convenience, we will use selected materials, such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP), vanadium oxide (V_(x)O_(y)), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), dilithium rhodizonate (Li₂C₆O₆), and copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) as illustrative examples of the cathode active material, and graphite, SnO, Co₃O₄, and Si particles as examples of the anode active material. For sodium batteries, we will use selected materials, such as NaFePO₄ and λ-MnO₂ particles, as illustrative examples of the cathode active material, and hard carbon and NaTi₂(PO₄)₃ particles as examples of the anode active material of a Na-ion cell. Similar approaches are applicable to K-ion batteries. Cu foil and Al foil are used as examples of anode current collector and cathode current collector, respectively. These should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention.

As illustrated in FIG. 1(A) and FIG. 1(B), a lithium-ion battery cell is typically composed of an anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil), an anode electrode (anode active material layer), a porous separator and/or an electrolyte component, a cathode electrode (cathode active material layer), and a cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil). In a more commonly used cell configuration (FIG. 1(B)), the anode layer is composed of particles of an anode active material (e.g. graphite or Si), a conductive additive (e.g. carbon black particles), and a resin binder (e.g. SBR or PVDF). The cathode layer is composed of particles of a cathode active material (e.g. LFP particles), a conductive additive (e.g. carbon black particles), and a resin binder (e.g. PVDF). Both the anode and the cathode layers are typically up to 100-200 μm thick to give rise to a presumably sufficient amount of current per unit electrode area. This thickness range is considered an industry-accepted constraint under which a battery designer normally works under. This thickness constraint is due to several reasons: (a) the existing battery electrode coating machines are not equipped to coat excessively thin or excessively thick electrode layers; (b) a thinner layer is preferred based on the consideration of reduced lithium ion diffusion path lengths; but, too thin a layer (e.g. <100 μm) does not contain a sufficient amount of an active lithium storage material (hence, insufficient current output); (c) thicker electrodes are prone to delaminate or crack upon drying or handling after roll-coating; and (d) all non-active material layers in a battery cell (e.g. current collectors and separator) must be kept to a minimum in order to obtain a minimum overhead weight and a maximum lithium storage capability and, hence, a maximized energy density (Wk/kg or Wh/L of cell).

In a less commonly used cell configuration, as illustrated in FIG. 1(A), either the anode active material (e.g. Si) or the cathode active material (e.g. lithium transition metal oxide) is deposited in a thin film form directly onto a current collector, such as a sheet of copper foil or Al foil. However, such a thin film structure with an extremely small thickness-direction dimension (typically much smaller than 500 nm, often necessarily thinner than 100 nm) implies that only a small amount of active material can be incorporated in an electrode (given the same electrode or current collector surface area), providing a low total lithium storage capacity and low lithium storage capacity per unit electrode surface area. Such a thin film must have a thickness less than 100 nm to be more resistant to cycling-induced cracking (for the anode) or to facilitate a full utilization of the cathode active material. Such a constraint further diminishes the total lithium storage capacity and the lithium storage capacity per unit electrode surface area. Such a thin-film battery has very limited scope of application.

On the anode side, a Si layer thicker than 100 nm has been found to exhibit poor cracking resistance during battery charge/discharge cycles. It takes but a few cycles to get fragmented. On the cathode side, a sputtered layer of lithium metal oxide thicker than 100 nm does not allow lithium ions to fully penetrate and reach full body of the cathode layer, resulting in a poor cathode active material utilization rate. A desirable electrode thickness is at least 100 μm, with individual active material coating or particle having a dimension desirably less than 100 nm. Thus, these thin-film electrodes (with a thickness <100 nm) directly deposited on a current collector fall short of the required thickness by three (3) orders of magnitude. As a further problem, all of the cathode active materials are not conductive to both electrons and lithium ions. A large layer thickness implies an excessively high internal resistance and a poor active material utilization rate.

In other words, there are several conflicting factors that must be considered concurrently when it comes to the design and selection of a cathode or anode active material in terms of material type, size, electrode layer thickness, and active material mass loading. Thus far, there has been no effective solution offered by any prior art teaching to these often conflicting problems. We have solved these challenging issues, which have troubled battery designers and electrochemists alike for more than 30 years, by developing a new process of producing lithium batteries as herein disclosed.

The prior art lithium battery cell is typically made by a process that includes the following steps: (a) The first step includes mixing particles of the anode active material (e.g. Si nano particles or meso-carbon micro-beads, MCMBs), a conductive filler (e.g. graphite flakes), a resin binder (e.g. PVDF) in a solvent (e.g. NMP) to form an anode slurry. On a separate basis, particles of the cathode active material (e.g. LFP particles), a conductive filler (e.g. acetylene black), a resin binder (e.g. PVDF) are mixed and dispersed in a solvent (e.g. NMP) to form a cathode slurry. (b) The second step includes coating the anode slurry onto one or both primary surfaces of an anode current collector (e.g. Cu foil), drying the coated layer by vaporizing the solvent (e.g. NMP) to form a dried anode electrode coated on Cu foil. Similarly, the cathode slurry is coated and dried to form a dried cathode electrode coated on Al foil. Slurry coating is normally done in a roll-to-roll manner in a real manufacturing situation; (c) The third step includes laminating an anode/Cu foil sheet, a porous separator layer, and a cathode/Al foil sheet together to form a 3-layer or 5-layer assembly, which is cut and slit into desired sizes and stacked to form a rectangular structure (as an example of shape) or rolled into a cylindrical cell structure. (d) The rectangular or cylindrical laminated structure is then encased in an aluminum-plastic laminated envelope or steel casing. (e) A liquid electrolyte is then injected into the laminated structure to make a lithium battery cell.

There are several serious problems associated with the conventional process and the resulting lithium-ion battery cell or sodium-ion cell:

-   -   1) It is very difficult to produce an electrode layer (anode         layer or cathode layer) that is thicker than 200 μm (100 μm on         each side of a solid current collector, such as Cu or Al foil).         There are several reasons why this is the case. An electrode of         100 μm in thickness typically requires a heating zone of 50-100         meters long in a slurry coating facility, which is too time         consuming, too energy intensive, and not cost-effective. For         some electrode active materials, such as metal oxide particles,         it has not been possible to produce an electrode of good         structural integrity that is thicker than 100 μm in a real         manufacturing environment on a continuous basis. The resulting         electrodes are very fragile and brittle. Thicker electrodes have         a high tendency to delaminate and crack.     -   2) With a conventional process, as depicted in FIG. 1(A), the         actual mass loadings of the electrodes and the apparent         densities for the active materials are too low to achieve a         gravimetric energy density of >200 Wh/kg. In most cases, the         anode active material mass loading of the electrodes (areal         density) is significantly lower than 25 mg/cm² and the apparent         volume density or tap density of the active material is         typically less than 1.2 g/cm³ even for relatively large         particles of graphite. The cathode active material mass loading         of the electrodes (areal density) is significantly lower than 45         mg/cm² for lithium metal oxide-type inorganic materials and         lower than 15 mg/cm² for organic or polymer materials. In         addition, there are so many other non-active materials (e.g.         conductive additive and resin binder) that add additional         weights and volumes to the electrode without contributing to the         cell capacity. These low areal densities and low volume         densities result in relatively low gravimetric energy density         and low volumetric energy density.     -   3) The conventional process requires dispersing dry electrode         active materials (anode active material or cathode active         material) in a liquid solvent (e.g. NMP) to make a slurry and,         upon coating on a current collector surface, the liquid solvent         has to be removed to dry the electrode layer. Once the anode and         cathode layers, along with a separator layer, are laminated         together and packaged in a housing to make a battery or         supercapacitor cell, one then injects a liquid electrolyte into         the cell. In actuality, one makes the two electrodes wet, then         makes the electrodes dry, and finally makes them wet again. Such         a wet-dry-wet process is clearly not a good process at all.     -   4) Current lithium-ion batteries still suffer from a relatively         low gravimetric energy density and low volumetric energy         density. Commercially available lithium-ion batteries exhibit a         gravimetric energy density of approximately 150-250 Wh/kg and a         volumetric energy density of 450-650 Wh/L.         -   In literature, the energy density data reported based on             either the active material weight alone or the electrode             weight cannot directly translate into the energy densities             of a practical battery cell or device. The “overhead weight”             or weights of other device components (binder, conductive             additive, current collectors, separator, electrolyte, and             packaging) must also be taken into account. The convention             production process results in the weight proportion of the             anode active material (e.g. graphite or carbon) in a             lithium-ion battery being typically from 12% to 17%, and             that of the cathode active material (e.g. LiMn₂O₄) from 20%             to 35%.

The present invention provides a process for producing an electrode of an electrochemical cell (e.g. alkali metal battery cell) having a high electrode thickness, high active material mass loading, low overhead weight and volume, high volumetric capacitance, and high volumetric energy density. In addition, the manufacturing costs of the batteries produced by the presently invented process are significantly lower than those by conventional processes.

In some embodiments of the present invention, as illustrated in FIG. 1(C), the invented process comprises continuously feeding an electrically conductive current collector 304 (e.g. Cu foil or Al foil) from a feeder roller (302, into an active material mixture deposition zone where a wet active material mixture 308 (e.g. slurry, suspension, or polymer gel-like mass) of an electrode active material, a conductive additive, and a liquid or polymer gel electrolyte is delivered and deposited onto a surface of the current collector 308 to form a layer of wet electrode 310 thereon; basically a coating or casting procedure (e.g. using a coating head 306).

There is no need for drying the wet electrode after deposition. This is in stark contrast to the conventional process wherein the solvent is completely removed to obtain a dry solid electrode and such a solvent removal procedure typically requires a heating zone as long as 50-100 meters for a layer of slurry from 60 to 100 μm in thickness. Since drying of the electrode is not required in the presently invented process, the thickness of the wet electrode layer (an anode electrode or cathode electrode) can be any desired thickness, not being limited to less than typically 200 μm as in the conventional process. The resulting electrode layer (anode or cathode electrode) preferably and typically has a thickness no less than 250 μm (preferably >300 μm, further preferably >400 μm, more preferably >500 μm or even >3,000 μm; no theoretical limitation on the electrode thickness.

Concurrently or subsequently, a sheet of porous separator 314 is directed to cover over a surface of the wet electrode (e.g. a cathode). Additionally, a layer of counter electrode 316 (e.g. a wet mixture anode electrode or a conventional dry solid anode electrode), coated on a surface of a current collector 318, is directed to come in contact with and overlay the porous separator 314 to form a multi-layer laminate 320 (5 layers, in this example). This multi-layer laminate itself is a basic electrochemical cell having an anode and a cathode and can function as a battery or supercapacitor, etc. This laminate 320 can be rolled into one or several battery cells (e.g. cylindrical cells). Alternatively, this laminate can be cut and slit into multiple cells, which are then each sealed in a pouch or protective casing having two terminals (tabs), one positive and the other negative, protruding out for future device connections. It may be noted that the electrolyte for these cells has already been introduced into the wet electrodes and, hence, no additional electrolyte injection step is required. The pre-incorporation of electrolyte (e.g. non-aqueous liquid electrolyte or polymer gel electrolyte) in the wet electrodes prior to being laminated into a cell enables and ensures good wetting and mixing of active materials with the electrolyte, thereby avoiding the formation of dry spots (electrolyte-deficient spots) in the cell. We have found that a cell featuring a polymer gel electrolyte typically exhibits a longer cycle life as compared to the same type of electrochemical cell having a liquid electrolyte.

Thus, in some embodiments, the invented process for producing an electrochemical cell comprises: (A) continuously depositing a wet cathode active material mixture onto at least a surface of a cathode current collector to form a wet cathode electrode (electrode remaining wet; the liquid solvent in the electrolyte not fully removed), wherein the wet cathode active material mixture preferably contains 30% to 85% by volume of a cathode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; (B) continuously depositing a wet anode active material mixture onto at least a surface of an anode current collector to form a wet anode electrode, wherein the wet anode active material mixture contains 30% to 85% by volume of an anode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a second liquid or polymer gel electrolytes; and (C) combining the wet cathode electrode or a portion thereof and the wet anode electrode or a portion thereof to form an electrochemical cell or multiple electrochemical cells; wherein the anode electrode and/or the cathode electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm. Each cathode electrode may be cut and slit into multiple pieces of cathode layers and each anode electrode may be cut and slit into multiple pieces of anode layers. A cathode layer and an anode layer (along with a separator disposed between the two layers) may be assembled into a battery cell.

In certain embodiments, in the above process, step (A) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, the wet cathode active material mixture to the at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery; and/or wherein step (B) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, the wet anode active material mixture to the at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery. These individual deposition procedures are well-known in the art.

The above are but several examples to illustrate how the presently invented electrodes and electrochemical cells can be made continuously, in an automated manner. These examples should not be used to limit the scope of the instant invention.

The current collectors can be preferably solid (non-porous conductive films, such as metal foils) or electrically conductive porous layers. The porous layers may be selected from metal foam, metal web or screen, perforated metal sheet-based structure, metal fiber mat, metal nanowire mat, conductive polymer nano-fiber mat, conductive polymer foam, conductive polymer-coated fiber foam, carbon foam, graphite foam, carbon aerogel, carbon xerogel, graphene foam, graphene oxide foam, reduced graphene oxide foam, carbon fiber foam, graphite fiber foam, exfoliated graphite foam, or a combination thereof. The porous layers must be made of an electrically conductive material, such as a carbon, graphite, metal, metal-coated fiber, conductive polymer, or conductive polymer-coated fiber, which is in a form of highly porous mat, screen/grid, non-woven, foam, etc.

Again, in each wet anode electrode or wet cathode electrode layer, all electrode active material particles are pre-dispersed in a liquid electrolyte (no wettability issue), eliminating the existence of dry pockets commonly present in an electrode prepared by the conventional process of wet coating, drying, packing, and electrolyte injection. Thus, the presently invented process produces a totally unexpected advantage over the conventional battery cell production process.

Conductive additives that can be used in the wet electrodes include particles of natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-carbon microbeads (MCMB), and carbon (including soft carbon, hard carbon, carbon nano-fiber, and carbon nano-tube). Graphene sheets are also a highly desired conductive additive.

Graphene sheets may also be used as an electrode active material in a metal ion cell. In a preferred embodiment, the anode active material for use in a lithium ion battery or sodium ion battery can contain a prelithiated or pre-sodiated version of graphene sheets selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof. The starting graphitic material for producing any one of the above graphene materials may be selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-phase carbon, meso-phase pitch, meso-carbon micro-bead, soft carbon, hard carbon, coke, carbon fiber, carbon nano-fiber, carbon nano-tube, or a combination thereof. Graphene materials are also a good conductive additive for both the anode and cathode active materials of an alkali metal battery.

The constituent graphene planes of a graphite crystallite in a natural or artificial graphite particle can be exfoliated and extracted or isolated to obtain individual graphene sheets of hexagonal carbon atoms, which are single-atom thick, provided the inter-planar van der Waals forces can be overcome. An isolated, individual graphene plane of carbon atoms is commonly referred to as single-layer graphene. A stack of multiple graphene planes bonded through van der Waals forces in the thickness direction with an inter-graphene plane spacing of approximately 0.3354 nm is commonly referred to as a multi-layer graphene. A multi-layer graphene platelet has up to 300 layers of graphene planes (<100 nm in thickness), but more typically up to 30 graphene planes (<10 nm in thickness), even more typically up to 20 graphene planes (<7 nm in thickness), and most typically up to 10 graphene planes (commonly referred to as few-layer graphene in scientific community). Single-layer graphene and multi-layer graphene sheets are collectively called “nano graphene platelets” (NGPs). Graphene sheets/platelets (collectively, NGPs) are a new class of carbon nano material (a 2-D nano carbon) that is distinct from the 0-D fullerene, the 1-D CNT or CNF, and the 3-D graphite. For the purpose of defining the claims and as is commonly understood in the art, a graphene material (isolated graphene sheets) is not (and does not include) a carbon nanotube (CNT) or a carbon nano-fiber (CNF).

In one process, graphene materials are obtained by intercalating natural graphite particles with a strong acid and/or an oxidizing agent to obtain a graphite intercalation compound (GIC) or graphite oxide (GO), as illustrated in FIG. 2(A) and FIG. 2(B) (schematic drawings). The presence of chemical species or functional groups in the interstitial spaces between graphene planes in a GIC or GO serves to increase the inter-graphene spacing (d₀₀₂, as determined by X-ray diffraction), thereby significantly reducing the van der Waals forces that otherwise hold graphene planes together along the c-axis direction. The GIC or GO is most often produced by immersing natural graphite powder (100 in FIG. 2(B)) in a mixture of sulfuric acid, nitric acid (an oxidizing agent), and another oxidizing agent (e.g. potassium permanganate or sodium perchlorate). The resulting GIC (102) is actually some type of graphite oxide (GO) particles if an oxidizing agent is present during the intercalation procedure. This GIC or GO is then repeatedly washed and rinsed in water to remove excess acids, resulting in a graphite oxide suspension or dispersion, which contains discrete and visually discernible graphite oxide particles dispersed in water. In order to produce graphene materials, one can follow one of the two processing routes after this rinsing step, briefly described below:

Route 1 involves removing water from the suspension to obtain “expandable graphite,” which is essentially a mass of dried GIC or dried graphite oxide particles. Upon exposure of expandable graphite to a temperature in the range of typically 800-1,050° C. for approximately 30 seconds to 2 minutes, the GIC undergoes a rapid volume expansion by a factor of 30-300 to form “graphite worms” (104), which are each a collection of exfoliated, but largely un-separated graphite flakes that remain interconnected.

In Route 1A, these graphite worms (exfoliated graphite or “networks of interconnected/non-separated graphite flakes”) can be re-compressed to obtain flexible graphite sheets or foils (106) that typically have a thickness in the range of 0.1 mm (100 μm)-0.5 mm (500 μm). Alternatively, one may choose to use a low-intensity air mill or shearing machine to simply break up the graphite worms for the purpose of producing the so-called “expanded graphite flakes” (108) which contain mostly graphite flakes or platelets thicker than 100 nm (hence, not a nano material by definition).

In Route 1B, the exfoliated graphite is subjected to high-intensity mechanical shearing (e.g. using an ultrasonicator, high-shear mixer, high-intensity air jet mill, or high-energy ball mill) to form separated single-layer and multi-layer graphene sheets (collectively called NGPs, 112), as disclosed in our U.S. application Ser. No. 10/858,814 (Jun. 3, 2004). Single-layer graphene can be as thin as 0.34 nm, while multi-layer graphene can have a thickness up to 100 nm, but more typically less than 10 nm (commonly referred to as few-layer graphene). Multiple graphene sheets or platelets may be made into a sheet of NGP paper using a paper-making process. This sheet of NGP paper is an example of the porous graphene structure layer utilized in the presently invented process.

Route 2 entails ultrasonicating the graphite oxide suspension (e.g. graphite oxide particles dispersed in water) for the purpose of separating/isolating individual graphene oxide sheets from graphite oxide particles. This is based on the notion that the inter-graphene plane separation bas been increased from 0.3354 nm in natural graphite to 0.6-1.1 nm in highly oxidized graphite oxide, significantly weakening the van der Waals forces that hold neighboring planes together. Ultrasonic power can be sufficient to further separate graphene plane sheets to form fully separated, isolated, or discrete graphene oxide (GO) sheets. These graphene oxide sheets can then be chemically or thermally reduced to obtain “reduced graphene oxides” (RGO) typically having an oxygen content of 0.001%-10% by weight, more typically 0.01%-5% by weight, most typically and preferably less than 2% by weight of oxygen.

For the purpose of defining the claims of the instant application, NGPs or graphene materials include discrete sheets/platelets of single-layer and multi-layer (typically less than 10 layers) pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide (RGO), graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, doped graphene (e.g. doped by B or N). Pristine graphene has essentially 0% oxygen. RGO typically has an oxygen content of 0.001%-5% by weight. Graphene oxide (including RGO) can have 0.001%-50% by weight of oxygen. Other than pristine graphene, all the graphene materials have 0.001%-50% by weight of non-carbon elements (e.g. O, H, N, B, F, Cl, Br, I, etc.). These materials are herein referred to as non-pristine graphene materials.

Pristine graphene, in smaller discrete graphene sheets (typically 0.3 μm to 10 μm), may be produced by direct ultrasonication (also known as liquid phase exfoliation or production) or supercritical fluid exfoliation of graphite particles. These processes are well-known in the art.

The graphene oxide (GO) may be obtained by immersing powders or filaments of a starting graphitic material (e.g. natural graphite powder) in an oxidizing liquid medium (e.g. a mixture of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and potassium permanganate) in a reaction vessel at a desired temperature for a period of time (typically from 0.5 to 96 hours, depending upon the nature of the starting material and the type of oxidizing agent used). As previously described above, the resulting graphite oxide particles may then be subjected to thermal exfoliation or ultrasonic wave-induced exfoliation to produce isolated GO sheets. These GO sheets can then be converted into various graphene materials by substituting —OH groups with other chemical groups (e.g. —Br, NH₂, etc.).

Fluorinated graphene or graphene fluoride is herein used as an example of the halogenated graphene material group. There are two different approaches that have been followed to produce fluorinated graphene: (1) fluorination of pre-synthesized graphene: This approach entails treating graphene prepared by mechanical exfoliation or by CVD growth with fluorinating agent such as XeF₂, or F-based plasmas; (2) Exfoliation of multilayered graphite fluorides: Both mechanical exfoliation and liquid phase exfoliation of graphite fluoride can be readily accomplished.

Interaction of F₂ with graphite at high temperature leads to covalent graphite fluorides (CF)_(n) or (C₂F)_(n), while at low temperatures graphite intercalation compounds (GIC) C_(x)F (2≤x≤24) form. In (CF)_(n) carbon atoms are sp3-hybridized and thus the fluorocarbon layers are corrugated consisting of trans-linked cyclohexane chairs. In (C₂F)_(n) only half of the C atoms are fluorinated and every pair of the adjacent carbon sheets are linked together by covalent C—C bonds. Systematic studies on the fluorination reaction showed that the resulting F/C ratio is largely dependent on the fluorination temperature, the partial pressure of the fluorine in the fluorinating gas, and physical characteristics of the graphite precursor, including the degree of graphitization, particle size, and specific surface area. In addition to fluorine (F₂), other fluorinating agents may be used, although most of the available literature involves fluorination with F₂ gas, sometimes in presence of fluorides.

For exfoliating a layered precursor material to the state of individual layers or few-layers, it is necessary to overcome the attractive forces between adjacent layers and to further stabilize the layers. This may be achieved by either covalent modification of the graphene surface by functional groups or by non-covalent modification using specific solvents, surfactants, polymers, or donor-acceptor aromatic molecules. The process of liquid phase exfoliation includes ultra-sonic treatment of a graphite fluoride in a liquid medium.

The nitrogenation of graphene can be conducted by exposing a graphene material, such as graphene oxide, to ammonia at high temperatures (200-400° C.). Nitrogenated graphene could also be formed at lower temperatures by a hydrothermal method; e.g. by sealing GO and ammonia in an autoclave and then increased the temperature to 150-250° C. Other methods to synthesize nitrogen doped graphene include nitrogen plasma treatment on graphene, arc-discharge between graphite electrodes in the presence of ammonia, ammonolysis of graphene oxide under CVD conditions, and hydrothermal treatment of graphene oxide and urea at different temperatures.

The aforementioned features are further described and explained in detail as follows: As illustrated in FIG. 2(B), a graphite particle (e.g. 100) is typically composed of multiple graphite crystallites or grains. A graphite crystallite is made up of layer planes of hexagonal networks of carbon atoms. These layer planes of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms are substantially flat and are oriented or ordered so as to be substantially parallel and equidistant to one another in a particular crystallite. These layers of hexagonal-structured carbon atoms, commonly referred to as graphene layers or basal planes, are weakly bonded together in their thickness direction (crystallographic c-axis direction) by weak van der Waals forces and groups of these graphene layers are arranged in crystallites. The graphite crystallite structure is usually characterized in terms of two axes or directions: the c-axis direction and the a-axis (or b-axis) direction. The c-axis is the direction perpendicular to the basal planes. The a- or b-axes are the directions parallel to the basal planes (perpendicular to the c-axis direction).

Due to the weak van der Waals forces holding the parallel graphene layers, natural graphite can be treated so that the spacing between the graphene layers can be appreciably opened up so as to provide a marked expansion in the c-axis direction, and thus form an expanded graphite structure in which the laminar character of the carbon layers is substantially retained. The process for manufacturing flexible graphite is well-known in the art. In general, flakes of natural graphite (e.g. 100 in FIG. 2(B)) are intercalated in an acid solution to produce graphite intercalation compounds (GICs, 102). The GICs are washed, dried, and then exfoliated by exposure to a high temperature for a short period of time. This causes the flakes to expand or exfoliate in the c-axis direction of the graphite up to 80-300 times of their original dimensions. The exfoliated graphite flakes are vermiform in appearance and, hence, are commonly referred to as graphite worms 104. These worms of graphite flakes which have been greatly expanded can be formed without the use of a binder into cohesive or integrated sheets of expanded graphite, e.g. webs, papers, strips, tapes, foils, mats or the like (typically referred to as “flexible graphite” 106) having a typical density of about 0.04-2.0 g/cm³ for most applications.

Acids, such as sulfuric acid, are not the only type of intercalating agent (intercalant) that penetrate into spaces between graphene planes to obtain GICs. Many other types of intercalating agents, such as alkali metals (Li, K, Na, Cs, and their alloys or eutectics), can be used to intercalate graphite to stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, etc. Stage n implies one intercalant layer for every n graphene planes. For instance, a stage-1 potassium-intercalated GIC means there is one layer of K for every graphene plane; or, one can find one layer of K atoms inserted between two adjacent graphene planes in a G/K/G/K/G/KG . . . sequence, where G is a graphene plane and K is a potassium atom plane. A stage-2 GIC will have a sequence of GG/K/GG/K/GG/K/GG . . . and a stage-3 GIC will have a sequence of GGG/K/GGG/K/GGG . . . etc. These GICs can then be brought in contact with water or water-alcohol mixture to produce exfoliated graphite and/or separated/isolated graphene sheets.

Exfoliated graphite worms may be subjected to high-intensity mechanical shearing/separation treatments using a high-intensity air jet mill, high-intensity ball mill, or ultrasonic device to produce separated nano graphene platelets (NGPs) with all the graphene platelets thinner than 100 nm, mostly thinner than 10 nm, and, in many cases, being single-layer graphene (also illustrated as 112 in FIG. 2(B)). An NGP is composed of a graphene sheet or a plurality of graphene sheets with each sheet being a two-dimensional, hexagonal structure of carbon atoms. A mass of multiple NGPs (including discrete sheets/platelets of single-layer and/or few-layer graphene or graphene oxide may be made into a porous graphene film (114 in FIG. 2(B)) using a film-making process. Alternatively, with a low-intensity shearing, graphite worms tend to be separated into the so-called expanded graphite flakes (108 in FIG. 2(B) having a thickness >100 nm. These flakes can be formed into graphite mat or nonwoven 106 using mat-making process, with or without a resin binder, to form an expanded graphite foam. Graphite foams can be made by graphitization of carbon foams as well.

There is no restriction on the types of anode active materials or cathode active materials that can be used in practicing the instant invention. Preferably, in the invented process, the anode active material absorbs alkali ions (e.g. lithium ions) at an electrochemical potential of less than 1.0 volt (preferably less than 0.7 volts) above the Li/Li⁺ (i.e. relative to Li→Li⁺+e⁻ as the standard potential) the Na/Na⁺ reference when the battery is charged. In one preferred embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) Particles of natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-carbon microbeads (MCMB), and carbon (including soft carbon, hard carbon, carbon nano-fiber, and carbon nano-tube); (b) Silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), iron (Fe), and cadmium (Cd); (Si, Ge, Al, and Sn are most desirable due to their high specific capacities.) (c) Alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, or Cd with other elements, wherein the alloys or compounds are stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric (e.g. SiAl, SiSn); (d) Oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Ti, Mn, or Cd, and their mixtures or composites (e.g. SnO, TiO₂, Co₃O₄, etc.); (e) Pre-lithiated versions thereof (e.g. pre-lithiated TiO₂, which is lithium titanate); (f) Pre-lithiated graphene sheets; and combinations thereof.

In another preferred embodiment, the anode active material is a pre-sodiated or pre-potassiated version of graphene sheets selected from pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, or a combination thereof. The starting graphitic material for producing any one of the above graphene materials may be selected from natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-phase carbon, meso-phase pitch, meso-carbon micro-bead, soft carbon, hard carbon, coke, carbon fiber, carbon nano-fiber, carbon nano-tube, or a combination thereof. Graphene materials are also a good conductive additive for both the anode and cathode active materials of an alkali metal battery.

In the rechargeable alkali metal battery, the anode may contain an alkali ion source selected from an alkali metal, an alkali metal alloy, a mixture of alkali metal or alkali metal alloy with an alkali intercalation compound, an alkali element-containing compound, or a combination thereof. Particularly desired is an anode active material that contains an alkali intercalation compound selected from petroleum coke, carbon black, amorphous carbon, hard carbon, templated carbon, hollow carbon nanowires, hollow carbon sphere, titanates, NaTi₂(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇ (Sodium titanate), Na₂C₈H₄O₄ (Disodium Terephthalate), Na₂TP (Sodium Terephthalate), TiO₂, Na_(x)TiO₂ (x=0.2 to 1.0), carboxylate based materials, C₈H₄Na₂O₄, C₈H₆O₄, C₈H₅NaO₄, C₈Na₂F₄O₄, C₁₀H₂Na₄O₈, C₁₄H₄O₆, C₁₄H₄Na₄O₈, or a combination thereof.

In an embodiment, the anode may contain a mixture of 2 or 3 types of anode active materials (e.g. mixed particles of activated carbon+NaTi₂(PO₄)₃) and the cathode can be a sodium intercalation compound alone (e.g. Na_(x)MnO₂), an electric double layer capacitor-type cathode active material alone (e.g. activated carbon), a redox pair of k-MnO₂/activated carbon for pseudo-capacitance.

A wide variety of cathode active materials can be used to practice the presently invented process. The cathode active material typically is an alkali metal intercalation compound or alkali metal-absorbing compound that is capable of storing alkali metal ions when the battery is discharged and releasing alkali metal ions into the electrolyte when rec-charged. The cathode active material may be selected from an inorganic material, an organic or polymeric material, a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide (most desired types of inorganic cathode materials), or a combination thereof.

The group of metal oxide, metal phosphate, and metal sulfides consisting of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphates, transition metal sulfides, and combinations thereof. In particular, the lithium vanadium oxide may be selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5. Lithium transition metal oxide may be selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, Tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.

In the alkali metal cell or alkali metal-ion cell, the cathode active material may contain a sodium intercalation compound (or their potassium counterparts) selected from NaFePO₄ (Sodium iron phosphate), Na_(0.7)FePO₄, Na_(1.5) VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, Na₃V2(PO₄)₂F₃, Na₂FePO₄F, NaFeF₃, NaVPO₄F, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, NaV₆O₁₅, Na_(x)VO₂, Na_(0.33)V₂O₅, Na_(x)CoO₂ (Sodium cobalt oxide), Na_(2/3)[Ni_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, Na_(x)(Fe_(1/2)Mn_(1/2))O₂, Na_(x)MnO₂ (Sodium manganese bronze), λ-MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂/C, Na₄Mn₉O₁₈, NaFe₂Mn(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇, Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)CO_(1/3)O₂, Cu_(0.56)Ni_(0.44)HCF (Copper and nickel hexacyanoferrate), NiHCF (nickel hexacyanoferrate), Na_(x)CoO₂, NaCrO₂, Na₃Ti₂(PO₄)₃, NiCo₂O₄, Ni₃S₂/FeS₂, Sb₂O₄, Na₄Fe(CN)₆/C, NaV_(1-x)Cr_(x)PO₄F, Se_(y)S_(z) (Selenium and Selenium/Sulfur, z/y from 0.01 to 100), Se (without S), Alluaudites, or a combination thereof.

Other inorganic materials for use as a cathode active material may be selected from sulfur, sulfur compound, lithium polysulfide, transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. In particular, the inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof. These will be further discussed later.

In particular, the inorganic material may be selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.

Alternatively, the cathode active material may be selected from a functional material or nano-structured material having an alkali metal ion-capturing functional group or alkali metal ion-storing surface in direct contact with the electrolyte. Preferably, the functional group reversibly reacts with an alkali metal ion, forms a redox pair with an alkali metal ion, or forms a chemical complex with an alkali metal ion. The functional material or nano-structured material may be selected from the group consisting of (a) a nano-structured or porous disordered carbon material selected from a soft carbon, hard carbon, polymeric carbon or carbonized resin, meso-phase carbon, coke, carbonized pitch, carbon black, activated carbon, nano-cellular carbon foam or partially graphitized carbon; (b) a nano graphene platelet selected from a single-layer graphene sheet or multi-layer graphene platelet; (c) a carbon nanotube selected from a single-walled carbon nanotube or multi-walled carbon nanotube; (d) a carbon nano-fiber, nano-wire, metal oxide nano-wire or fiber, conductive polymer nano-fiber, or a combination thereof; (e) a carbonyl-containing organic or polymeric molecule; (f) a functional material containing a carbonyl, carboxylic, or amine group; and combinations thereof.

The functional material or nano-structured material may be selected from the group consisting of Poly(2,5-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoquinone-3,6-methylene), Na_(x)C₆O₆ (x=1-3), Na₂(C₆H₂O₄), Na₂C₈H₄O₄ (Na terephthalate), Na₂C₆H₄O₄(Li trans-trans-muconate), 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylicacid-dianhydride (PTCDA) sulfide polymer, PTCDA, 1,4,5,8-naphthalene-tetracarboxylicacid-dianhydride (NTCDA), Benzene-1,2,4,5-tetracarboxylic dianhydride, 1,4,5,8-tetrahydroxy anthraquinon, Tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone, and combinations thereof. Desirably, the functional material or nano-structured material has a functional group selected from —COOH, ═O, —NH₂, —OR, or —COOR, where R is a hydrocarbon radical.

The organic material or polymeric material may be selected from Poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, Quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, Hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), Hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-Benzylidene hydantoin, Isatine lithium salt, Pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.

The thioether polymer is selected from Poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing Poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, Poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), Poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).

The organic material may be selected from a phthalocyanine compound selected from copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

The lithium intercalation compound or lithium-absorbing compound may be selected from a metal carbide, metal nitride, metal boride, metal dichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the lithium intercalation compound or lithium-absorbing compound is selected from an oxide, dichalcogenide, trichalcogenide, sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, vanadium, chromium, cobalt, manganese, iron, or nickel in a nanowire, nano-disc, nano-ribbon, or nano platelet form.

We have discovered that a wide variety of two-dimensional (2D) inorganic materials can be used as a cathode active material in the presented invented lithium battery prepared by the invented direct active material-electrolyte injection process. Layered materials represent a diverse source of 2D systems that can exhibit unexpected electronic properties and good affinity to lithium ions. Although graphite is the best known layered material, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), transition metal oxides (TMOs), and a broad array of other compounds, such as BN, Bi₂Te₃, and Bi₂Se₃, are also potential sources of 2D materials.

Preferably, the lithium intercalation compound or lithium-absorbing compound is selected from nano discs, nano platelets, nano-coating, or nano sheets of an inorganic material selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof; wherein the discs, platelets, or sheets have a thickness less than 100 nm. The lithium intercalation compound or lithium-absorbing compound may contain nano discs, nano platelets, nano-coating, or nano sheets of a compound selected from: (i) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (ii) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (iii) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (iv) boron nitride, or (v) a combination thereof, wherein the discs, platelets, coating, or sheets have a thickness less than 100 nm.

Non-graphene 2D nano materials, single-layer or few-layer (up to 20 layers), can be produced by several methods: mechanical cleavage, laser ablation (e.g. using laser pulses to ablate TMDs down to a single layer), liquid phase exfoliation, and synthesis by thin film techniques, such as PVD (e.g. sputtering), evaporation, vapor phase epitaxy, liquid phase epitaxy, chemical vapor epitaxy, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), atomic layer epitaxy (ALE), and their plasma-assisted versions.

A wide range of electrolytes can be used for practicing the instant invention. Most preferred are non-aqueous organic electrolytes, ionic liquid electrolytes, and polymer gel electrolytes.

The non-aqueous electrolyte to be employed herein may be produced by dissolving an electrolytic salt in a non-aqueous solvent. Any known non-aqueous solvent which has been employed as a solvent for a lithium secondary battery can be employed. A non-aqueous solvent mainly consisting of a mixed solvent comprising ethylene carbonate (EC) and at least one kind of non-aqueous solvent whose melting point is lower than that of aforementioned ethylene carbonate and whose donor number is 18 or less (hereinafter referred to as a second solvent) may be preferably employed. This non-aqueous solvent is advantageous in that it is (a) stable against a negative electrode containing a carbonaceous material well developed in graphite structure; (b) effective in suppressing the reductive or oxidative decomposition of electrolyte; and (c) high in conductivity. A non-aqueous electrolyte solely composed of ethylene carbonate (EC) is advantageous in that it is relatively stable against decomposition through a reduction by a graphitized carbonaceous material. However, the melting point of EC is relatively high, 39 to 40° C., and the viscosity thereof is relatively high, so that the conductivity thereof is low, thus making EC alone unsuited for use as a secondary battery electrolyte to be operated at room temperature or lower. The second solvent to be used in a mixture with EC functions to make the viscosity of the solvent mixture lower than that of EC alone, thereby promoting the ion conductivity of the mixed solvent. Furthermore, when the second solvent having a donor number of 18 or less (the donor number of ethylene carbonate is 16.4) is employed, the aforementioned ethylene carbonate can be easily and selectively solvated with lithium ion, so that the reduction reaction of the second solvent with the carbonaceous material well developed in graphitization is assumed to be suppressed. Further, when the donor number of the second solvent is controlled to not more than 18, the oxidative decomposition potential to the lithium electrode can be easily increased to 4 V or more, so that it is possible to manufacture a lithium secondary battery of high voltage.

Preferable second solvents are dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, propylene carbonate (PC), .gamma.-butyrolactone (.gamma.-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene and methyl acetate (MA). These second solvents may be employed singly or in a combination of two or more. More desirably, this second solvent should be selected from those having a donor number of 16.5 or less. The viscosity of this second solvent should preferably be 28 cps or less at 25° C.

The mixing ratio of the aforementioned ethylene carbonate in the mixed solvent should preferably be 10 to 80% by volume. If the mixing ratio of the ethylene carbonate falls outside this range, the conductivity of the solvent may be lowered or the solvent tends to be more easily decomposed, thereby deteriorating the charge/discharge efficiency. More preferable mixing ratio of the ethylene carbonate is 20 to 75% by volume. When the mixing ratio of ethylene carbonate in a non-aqueous solvent is increased to 20% by volume or more, the solvating effect of ethylene carbonate to lithium ions will be facilitated and the solvent decomposition-inhibiting effect thereof can be improved.

Examples of preferred mixed solvent are a composition comprising EC and MEC; comprising EC, PC and MEC; comprising EC, MEC and DEC; comprising EC, MEC and DMC; and comprising EC, MEC, PC and DEC; with the volume ratio of MEC being controlled within the range of 30 to 80%. By selecting the volume ratio of MEC from the range of 30 to 80%, more preferably 40 to 70%, the conductivity of the solvent can be improved. With the purpose of suppressing the decomposition reaction of the solvent, an electrolyte having carbon dioxide dissolved therein may be employed, thereby effectively improving both the capacity and cycle life of the battery.

The electrolytic salts to be incorporated into a non-aqueous electrolyte may be selected from a lithium salt such as lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), lithium borofluoride (LiBF₄), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF₆), lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃) and bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium [LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂]. Among them, LiPF₆, LiBF₄ and LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂ are preferred. The content of aforementioned electrolytic salts in the non-aqueous solvent in a conventional alkali metal battery is typically from 0.5 to 2.0 mol/l. However, we prefer to use a higher concentration of metal salt in an organic or ionic liquid: 2.5 M to 12 M.

In certain embodiments, the first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte or the second liquid or polymer gel electrolyte contains greater than 2.5 M (typically from 2.5 M to 12 M) of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent. Preferably, the salt concentration is greater than 3.5 M, more preferably greater than 5.0 M, and further preferably greater than 7.0 M. It is unexpected that with such high salt concentrations one is still capable of delivering and depositing the wet anode active material mixture or the wet cathode active material mixture onto a current collector surface to form an electrode that is uniform in thickness and of structural integrity (can be mechanically handled with ease without breaking). Such a high-concentration electrolyte (herein referred to as a quasi-solid electrolyte) also makes the electrolyte non-flammable, a highly desirable attribute to a battery, such as lithium-ion battery and sodium ion battery. Such an electrolyte also leads to a longer cycle life.

Electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries and sodium ion batteries are known to typically contain less than 2.0 M of a lithium salt or sodium salt in a liquid solvent; one simply cannot dissolve a higher concentration of salt in the solvent. In these situations, one can initially use a higher amount of the liquid solvent (lower initial salt concentration) to enable the flowability and film-forming ability of the wet electrode active material (e.g. using dispensing and coating). Once the electrode layer (either anode or cathode) is formed, some amount of the liquid solvent is removed to increase the salt concentration above 2.5 M. The liquid solvent can be a mixture of two or more liquid solvents; one of the liquid solvents is more volatile than the other(s), enabling removal of some of the solvent.

Thus, in certain embodiments, the first liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₁, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to the sub-step of depositing a wet cathode active material mixture and step (A) includes a procedure of removing a portion of the liquid solvent after deposition of the wet mixture to increase the metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₂, wherein M₂>M₁.

In certain embodiments, the second liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₃, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to depositing the wet anode active material mixture and step (B) includes a procedure of removing a portion of the liquid solvent after the depositing step to increase the metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₄, wherein M₄>M₃.

In the case wherein only one of the electrodes (e.g. cathode) is a wet mixture electrode, the first liquid electrolyte may contain an initial concentration, M₅, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to depositing the wet cathode active material mixture and step (A) includes a procedure of removing a portion of the liquid solvent after deposition to increase a metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₆, wherein M₆>M₅.

The ionic liquid is composed of ions only. Ionic liquids are low melting temperature salts that are in a molten or liquid state when above a desired temperature. For instance, a salt is considered as an ionic liquid if its melting point is below 100° C. If the melting temperature is equal to or lower than room temperature (25° C.), the salt is referred to as a room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL). The IL salts are characterized by weak interactions, due to the combination of a large cation and a charge-delocalized anion. This results in a low tendency to crystallize due to flexibility (anion) and asymmetry (cation).

A typical and well-known ionic liquid is formed by the combination of a 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (EMI) cation and an N,N-bis(trifluoromethane)sulphonamide (TFSI) anion. This combination gives a fluid with an ionic conductivity comparable to many organic electrolyte solutions and a low decomposition propensity and low vapor pressure up to ˜300-400° C. This implies a generally low volatility and non-flammability and, hence, a much safer electrolyte for batteries.

Ionic liquids are basically composed of organic ions that come in an essentially unlimited number of structural variations owing to the preparation ease of a large variety of their components. Thus, various kinds of salts can be used to design the ionic liquid that has the desired properties for a given application. These include, among others, imidazolium, pyrrolidinium and quaternary ammonium salts as cations and bis(trifluoromethanesulphonyl) imide, bis(fluorosulphonyl)imide, and hexafluorophosphate as anions. Based on their compositions, ionic liquids come in different classes that basically include aprotic, protic and zwitterionic types, each one suitable for a specific application.

Common cations of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) include, but not limited to, tetraalkylammonium, di-, tri-, and tetra-alkylimidazolium, alkylpyridinium, dialkyl-pyrrolidinium, dialkylpiperidinium, tetraalkylphosphonium, and trialkylsulfonium. Common anions of RTILs include, but not limited to, BF₄ ⁻, B(CN)₄ ⁻, CH₃BF₃ ⁻, CH2CHBF₃ ⁻, CF₃BF₃ ⁻, C₂F₅BF₃ ⁻, n-C₃F₇BF₃ ⁻, n-C₄F₉BF₃ ⁻, PF₆ ⁻, CF₃CO₂ ⁻, CF₃SO₃ ⁻, N(SO₂CF₃)₂ ⁻, N(COCF₃)(SO₂CF₃)⁻, N(SO₂F)₂ ⁻, N(CN)₂ ⁻, C(CN)₃ ⁻, SCN⁻, SeCN⁻, CuCl₂ ⁻, AlCl₄ ⁻, F(HF)_(2.3) ⁻, etc. Relatively speaking, the combination of imidazolium- or sulfonium-based cations and complex halide anions such as AlCl₄ ⁻, BF₄ ⁻, CF₃CO₂ ⁻, CF₃SO₃ ⁻, NTf₂ ⁻, N(SO₂F)₂ ⁻, or F(HF)₂₃ ⁻ results in RTILs with good working conductivities.

RTILs can possess archetypical properties such as high intrinsic ionic conductivity, high thermal stability, low volatility, low (practically zero) vapor pressure, non-flammability, the ability to remain liquid at a wide range of temperatures above and below room temperature, high polarity, high viscosity, and wide electrochemical windows. These properties, except for the high viscosity, are desirable attributes when it comes to using an RTIL as an electrolyte ingredient (a salt and/or a solvent) in a supercapacitor.

In the invented process, the first or second polymer gel electrolyte may contain an ion-conducting polymer. Preferably, the ion-conducting polymer is selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVdF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, a sulfonated polymer, or a combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, the ion-conducting polymer may be selected from the group consisting of poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroalkoxy derivatives of polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated polysulfone, sulfonated poly(ether ketone), sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), sulfonated polystyrene, sulfonated polyimide, sulfonated styrene-butadiene copolymers, sulfonated poly chloro-trifluoroethylene (PCTFE), sulfonated perfluoroethylene-propylene copolymer (FEP), sulfonated ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer (ECTFE), sulfonated polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF), sulfonated copolymers of polyvinylidenefluoride with hexafluoropropene and tetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), sulfonated polybenzimidazole (PBI), their chemical derivatives, copolymers, blends and combinations thereof.

In what follows, we provide examples for a large number of different types of anode active materials, cathode active materials, and conductive fillers to illustrate the best mode of practicing the instant invention. Theses illustrative examples and other portions of instant specification and drawings, separately or in combinations, are more than adequate to enable a person of ordinary skill in the art to practice the instant invention. However, these examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of instant invention.

Example 1: Preparation of Graphene Oxide (GO) and Reduced Graphene Oxide (RGO) Nano Sheets from Natural Graphite Powder

Natural graphite from Huadong Graphite Co. (Qingdao, China) was used as the starting material. GO was obtained by following the well-known modified Hummers method, which involved two oxidation stages. In a typical procedure, the first oxidation was achieved in the following conditions: 1100 mg of graphite was placed in a 1000 mL boiling flask. Then, 20 g of K₂S₂O₈, 20 g of P₂O₅, and 400 mL of a concentrated aqueous solution of H₂SO₄ (96%) were added in the flask. The mixture was heated under reflux for 6 hours and then let without disturbing for 20 hours at room temperature. Oxidized graphite was filtered and rinsed with abundant distilled water until neutral pH. A wet cake-like material was recovered at the end of this first oxidation.

For the second oxidation process, the previously collected wet cake was placed in a boiling flask that contains 69 mL of a concentrated aqueous solution of H₂SO₄ (96%). The flask was kept in an ice bath as 9 g of KMnO₄ was slowly added. Care was taken to avoid overheating. The resulting mixture was stirred at 35° C. for 2 hours (the sample color turning dark green), followed by the addition of 140 mL of water. After 15 min, the reaction was halted by adding 420 mL of water and 15 mL of an aqueous solution of 30 wt % H₂O₂. The color of the sample at this stage turned bright yellow. To remove the metallic ions, the mixture was filtered and rinsed with a 1:10 HCl aqueous solution. The collected material was gently centrifuged at 2700 g and rinsed with deionized water. The final product was a wet cake that contained 1.4 wt % of GO, as estimated from dry extracts. Subsequently, liquid dispersions of GO platelets were obtained by lightly sonicating wet-cake materials, which were diluted in deionized water.

Surfactant-stabilized RGO (RGO-BS) was obtained by diluting the wet-cake in an aqueous solution of surfactants instead of pure water. A commercially available mixture of cholate sodium (50 wt. %) and deoxycholate sodium (50 wt. %) salts provided by Sigma Aldrich was used. The surfactant weight fraction was 0.5 wt. %. This fraction was kept constant for all samples. Sonication was performed using a Branson Sonifier S-250A equipped with a 13 mm step disruptor horn and a 3 mm tapered micro-tip, operating at a 20 kHz frequency. For instance, 10 mL of aqueous solutions containing 0.1 wt. % of GO was sonicated for 10 min and subsequently centrifuged at 2700 g for 30 min to remove any non-dissolved large particles, aggregates, and impurities. Chemical reduction of as-obtained GO to yield RGO was conducted by following the method, which involved placing 10 mL of a 0.1 wt. % GO aqueous solution in a boiling flask of 50 mL. Then, 10 μL of a 35 wt. % aqueous solution of N₂H₄ (hydrazine) and 70 mL of a 28 wt. % of an aqueous solution of NH₄OH (ammonia) were added to the mixture, which was stabilized by surfactants. The solution was heated to 90° C. and refluxed for 1 h. The pH value measured after the reaction was approximately 9. The color of the sample turned dark black during the reduction reaction.

RGO was used as a conductive additive in either or both of the anode and cathode active material in certain lithium batteries presently invented. Pre-lithiated RGO (e.g. RGO+lithium particles or RGO pre-deposited with lithium coating) was also used as an anode active material that was mixed with a liquid electrolyte to form wet anode active material mixtures for selected lithium-ion cells. Selected cathode active materials (TiS₂ nano particles and LiCoO₂ particles, respectively) and non-lithiated RGO sheets were dispersed in a liquid electrolyte to prepare wet cathode active material mixture. The wet anode active mixture and cathode active mixtures were delivered to surfaces of graphite foams for forming an anode layer and a cathode layer, respectively.

For comparison purposes, slurry coating and drying procedures were conducted to produce conventional electrodes. Electrodes and a separator disposed between two dried electrodes were then assembled and encased in an Al-plastic laminated packaging envelop, followed by liquid electrolyte injection to form a lithium battery cell.

Example 2: Preparation of Pristine Graphene Sheets (0% Oxygen)

Recognizing the possibility of the high defect population in GO sheets acting to reduce the conductivity of individual graphene plane, we decided to study if the use of pristine graphene sheets (non-oxidized and oxygen-free, non-halogenated and halogen-free, etc.) can lead to a conductive additive having a high electrical and thermal conductivity. Pre-lithiated pristine graphene and pre-sodiated pristine graphene were also used as an anode active material for a lithium-ion battery and a sodium-ion battery, respectively. Pristine graphene sheets were produced by using the direct ultrasonication or liquid-phase production process.

In a typical procedure, five grams of graphite flakes, ground to approximately 20 μm or less in sizes, were dispersed in 1,000 mL of deionized water (containing 0.1% by weight of a dispersing agent, Zonyl® FSO from DuPont) to obtain a suspension. An ultrasonic energy level of 85 W (Branson S450 Ultrasonicator) was used for exfoliation, separation, and size reduction of graphene sheets for a period of 15 minutes to 2 hours. The resulting graphene sheets are pristine graphene that have never been oxidized and are oxygen-free and relatively defect-free. Pristine graphene is essentially free from any non-carbon elements.

Pristine graphene sheets, as a conductive additive, along with an anode active material (or cathode active material in the cathode) were then incorporated in a battery using both the presently invented procedure and conventional procedure of slurry coating, drying and layer laminating. Both lithium-ion batteries and lithium metal batteries (containing a wet cathode electrode) were investigated. Sodium-ion cells were also studied.

Example 3: Preparation of Prelithiated and Pre-Sodiated Graphene Fluoride Sheets as an Anode Active Material of a Lithium-Ion Battery or Sodium-Ion Battery

Several processes have been used by us to produce GF, but only one process is herein described as an example. In a typical procedure, highly exfoliated graphite (HEG) was prepared from intercalated compound C₂F.xClF₃. HEG was further fluorinated by vapors of chlorine trifluoride to yield fluorinated highly exfoliated graphite (FHEG). Pre-cooled Teflon reactor was filled with 20-30 mL of liquid pre-cooled ClF₃, the reactor was closed and cooled to liquid nitrogen temperature. Then, no more than 1 g of HEG was put in a container with holes for ClF₃ gas to access and situated inside the reactor. In 7-10 days a gray-beige product with approximate formula C₂F was formed.

Subsequently, a small amount of FHEG (approximately 0.5 mg) was mixed with 20-30 mL of an organic solvent (methanol and ethanol, separately) and subjected to an ultrasound treatment (280 W) for 30 min, leading to the formation of homogeneous yellowish dispersions. Upon removal of solvent, the dispersion became a brownish powder. The graphene fluoride powder was mixed with surface-stabilized lithium powder and dispersed in a liquid electrolyte, allowing for pre-lithiation to occur before or after deposition to an anode current collector. Pre-sodiation of graphene fluoride was conducted electrochemically using a procedure substantially similar to a plating procedure.

Example 4: Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Cathode of a Lithium Metal Battery

LFP powder, un-coated or carbon-coated, is commercially available from several sources. A LFP target for sputtering was prepared by compacting and sintering LFP powders together. Sputtering of LFP was conducted on a graphene film and, separately, carbon nano-fiber (CNF) mat. The LFP-coated graphene film was then broken and pulverized to form LFP-coated graphene sheets.

Both carbon-coated LFP powder and graphene-supported LFP, separately, along with a liquid electrolyte, were then incorporated in a battery using both the presently invented procedure of laminating alkali metal-ion battery structures containing a wet mixture cathode and the conventional procedure of slurry coating, drying and layer laminating.

Example 5: Preparation of Disodium Terephthalate (Na₂C₈H₄O₄) as an Anode Active Material of a Sodium-Ion Battery

Pure disodium terephthalate was obtained by the recrystallization method. An aqueous solution was prepared via the addition of terephthalic acid to an aqueous NaOH solution and then ethanol (EtOH) was added to the mixture to precipitate disodium terephthalate in a water/EtOH mixture. Because of resonance stabilization, terephtalic acid has relatively low pKa values, which allow easy deprotonation by NaOH, affording disodium terephthalate (Na₂TP) through the acid-base chemistry. In a typical procedure, terephthalic acid (3.00 g, 18.06 mmol) was treated with sodium hydroxide (1.517 g, 37.93 mmol) in EtOH (60 mL) at room temperature. After 24 h, the suspended reaction mixture was centrifuged and the supernatant solution was decanted. The precipitate was re-dispersed in EtOH and then centrifuged again. This procedure was repeated twice to yield a white solid. The product was dried in vacuum at 150° C. for 1 h. In a separate sample, GO was added to aqueous NaOH solution (5% by wt. of GO sheets) to prepare sheets of graphene-supported disodium terephthalate under comparable reaction conditions.

Both carbon-disodium terephthalate mixture powder and graphene-supported disodium terephthalate, separately, each along with a liquid electrolyte, were then incorporated in a battery using both the presently invented procedure and the conventional procedure of slurry coating, drying and layer laminating.

Example 6: V₂O₅ as an Example of a Transition Metal Oxide Cathode Active Material of a Lithium Battery

V₂O₅ powder alone is commercially available. For the preparation of a graphene-supported V₂O₅ powder sample, in a typical experiment, vanadium pentoxide gels were obtained by mixing V₂O₅ in a LiCl aqueous solution. The Lit exchanged gels obtained by interaction with LiCl solution (the Li:V molar ratio was kept as 1:1) was mixed with a GO suspension and then placed in a Teflon-lined stainless steel 35 ml autoclave, sealed, and heated up to 180° C. for 12 h. After such a hydrothermal treatment, the green solids were collected, thoroughly washed, ultrasonicated for 2 minutes, and dried at 70° C. for 12 h followed by mixing with another 0.1% GO in water, ultrasonicating to break down nano-belt sizes, and then spray-drying at 200° C. to obtain graphene-embraced composite particulates.

Both V₂O₅ powder (with a carbon black powder as a conductive additive) and graphene-supported V₂O₅ powder, separately, along with a liquid electrolyte, were then incorporated in a battery using both the presently invented process and the conventional procedure of slurry coating, drying and layer laminating.

Example 7: LiCoO₂ as an Example of Lithium Transition Metal Oxide Cathode Active Material for a Lithium-Ion Battery

Commercially available LiCoO₂ powder and carbon black powder were dispersed in a polymer gel electrolyte (PEO+EC-DEC) to form cathode active material mixtures, which were coated onto Al foil-based cathode current collector layers to form a cathode electrode. Graphite particle-liquid electrolyte (i.e. the anode active mixture) was coated Cu foil to form anode electrodes. Additionally, a mixture of graphene embraced Si nano particles and liquid electrolyte and polymer gel electrolyte, separately, was coated onto a Cu foil to obtain an anode electrode. An anode electrode, a porous separator layer, and a cathode electrode were assembled, compacted, and encased in a plastic-Al envelop to form a battery cell. The cell was then hermetically sealed.

On a separate basis, LiCoO₂ powder, carbon black powder, and PVDF resin binder were dispersed in NMP solvent to form a slurry, which was coated onto both sides of a AL foil current collector and then dried under vacuum to form a cathode layer. Graphite particles and PVDF resin binder were dispersed in NMP solvent to form a slurry, which was coated onto both sides of a Cu foil current collector and then dried under vacuum to form an anode layer. The anode layer, separator, cathode layer were then laminated and encased in an Al-plastic housing, which was injected with a liquid electrolyte or polymer gel electrolyte to form a conventional lithium-ion battery.

Example 8: Cathode Active Materials Based on Mixed Transition Metal Oxides

As examples, for the synthesis of Na_(1.0)Li_(0.2)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(δ), Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)CO₃, or Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)(OH)₂ cathode active material, Na₂CO₃, and Li₂CO₃ were used as starting compounds. Materials in appropriate mole ratios were ground together and heat-treated; first at 500° C. for 8 h in air, then finally at 800° C. for 8 h in air, and furnace cooled.

For electrode preparation using a conventional procedure, a sheet of aluminum foil was coated with N-methylpyrrolidinone (NMP) slurry of the cathode mixture. The electrode mixture is composed of 82 wt % active oxide material, 8 wt. % of conductive carbon black (Timcal Super-P), and 10 wt. % PVDF binder (Kynar). After casting, the electrode was initially dried at 70° C. for 2 h, followed by dynamic vacuum drying at 80° C. for 6 h. The sodium metal foil was cut from sodium chunks (Aldrich, 99%) that were cleaned of any oil using hexanes, then rolled and punched out. For the preparation of the presently invented slurry, NMP was replaced by a liquid electrolyte (propylene carbonate with 1 M of NaClO₄). Such a slurry was directly coated onto a surface of a cathode current collector, Al foil.

Both Na_(1.0)Li_(0.2)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(δ) powder (with a carbon black powder as a conductive additive) and graphene-supported Na_(1.0)Li_(0.2)Ni_(0.25)Mn_(0.75)O_(δ) powder, separately, along with a liquid electrolyte or polymer gel electrolyte (PAN+1 M of NaClO₄ in PC), were then incorporated in a battery using both the presently invented procedure and the conventional procedure of slurry coating, drying and layer laminating.

The electrolyte was propylene carbonate (PC) with 1-3.5 M of NaClO₄ electrolyte salt (Aldrich, 99%). Pouch cells were galvanostatically cycled to a cutoff of 4.2 V vs. Na/Na⁺ (15 mA/g) and then discharged at various current rates to a cutoff voltage of 2.0 V.

In all battery cells prepared, charge storage capacities were measured periodically and recorded as a function of the number of cycles. The specific discharge capacity herein referred to is the total charge inserted into the cathode during the discharge, per unit mass of the composite cathode (counting the weights of cathode active material, conductive additive or support, binder, and any optional additive combined, but excluding the current collector). The specific charge capacity refers to the amount of charges per unit mass of the composite cathode. The specific energy and specific power values presented in this section are based on the total cell weight for all pouch cells. The morphological or micro-structural changes of selected samples after a desired number of repeated charging and recharging cycles were observed using both transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Example 9: Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C and Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/Graphene Cathodes

The Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C sample was synthesized by a solid state reaction according to the following procedure: a stoichiometric mixture of NaH₂PO₄.2H₂O (99.9%, Alpha) and V₂O₃ (99.9%, Alpha) powders was put in an agate jar as a precursor and then the precursor was ball-milled in a planetary ball mill at 400 rpm in a stainless steel vessel for 8 h. During ball milling, for the carbon coated sample, sugar (99.9%, Alpha) was also added as the carbon precursor and the reductive agent, which prevents the oxidation of V³⁺. After ball milling, the mixture was pressed into a pellet and then heated at 900° C. for 24 h in Ar atmosphere. Separately, the Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/Graphene cathode was prepared in a similar manner, but with sugar replaced by graphene oxide.

The cathode active materials were used in several Na metal cells containing 1 M and 3.5 M, respectively, of NaPF₆ salt in PC+DOL as the electrolyte. Both conventional NMP slurry coating process and the invented direct wet mixture electrode coating were followed to produce Na metal cells.

Example 10: Organic Material (Li₂C₆O₆) as a Cathode Active Material of a Lithium Metal Battery

In order to synthesize dilithium rhodizonate (Li₂C₆O₆), the rhodizonic acid dihydrate (species 1 in the following scheme) was used as a precursor. A basic lithium salt, Li₂CO₃ can be used in aqueous media to neutralize both enediolic acid functions. Strictly stoichiometric quantities of both reactants, rhodizonic acid and lithium carbonate, were allowed to react for 10 hours to achieve a yield of 90%. Dilithium rhodizonate (species 2) was readily soluble even in a small amount of water, implying that water molecules are present in species 2. Water was removed in a vacuum at 180° C. for 3 hours to obtain the anhydrous version (species 3).

A mixture of a cathode active material (Li₂C₆O₆) and a conductive additive (carbon black, 15%) was ball-milled for 10 minutes and the resulting blend was grinded to produce composite particles. The electrolyte was 2.5 M of lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) in PC-EC.

It may be noted that the two Li atoms in the formula Li₂C₆O₆ are part of the fixed structure and they do not participate in reversible lithium ion storing and releasing. This implies that lithium ions must come from the anode side. Hence, there must be a lithium source (e.g. lithium metal or lithium metal alloy) at the anode. The anode current collector (Cu foil) is deposited with a layer of lithium (e.g. via electrochemical plating). This was done prior to assembling the lithium-coated layer (or simply a lithium foil), a porous separator, and a wet mixture cathode layer into a casing envelop. The cathode active material and conductive additive (Li₂C₆O₆/C composite particles) were dispersed in a liquid electrolyte to form a wet mixture, which was coated onto an Al foil. For comparison, the corresponding conventional Li metal cell was also fabricated by the conventional procedures of slurry coating, drying, laminating, packaging, and electrolyte injection.

Example 11: Organic Material (Na₂C₆O₆) as a Cathode Active Material of a Sodium Metal Battery

In order to synthesize disodium rhodizonate (Na₂C₆O₆), the rhodizonic acid dihydrate (species 1 in the following scheme) was used as a precursor. A basic sodium salt, Na₂CO₃ can be used in aqueous media to neutralize both enediolic acid functions. Strictly stoichiometric quantities of both reactants, rhodizonic acid and sodium carbonate, were allowed to react for 10 hours to achieve a yield of 80%. Disodium rhodizonate (species 2) was readily soluble even in a small amount of water, implying that water molecules are present in species 2. Water was removed in a vacuum at 180° C. for 3 hours to obtain the anhydrous version (species 3).

A mixture of a cathode active material (Na₂C₆O₆) and a conductive additive (carbon black, 15%) was ball-milled for 10 minutes and the resulting blend was grinded to produce composite particles. The electrolyte was 5.0M of sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF₆) in PC-EC.

The two Na atoms in the formula Na₂C₆O₆ are part of the fixed structure and they do not participate in reversible lithium ion storing and releasing. The sodium ions must come from the anode side. Hence, there must be a sodium source (e.g. sodium metal or sodium metal alloy) at the anode. The anode current collector (Cu foil) is deposited with a layer of sodium (via electrochemical plating). This was conducted prior to assembling the sodium-coated layer or simply a sodium foil, a porous separator, and a wet cathode mixture-coated Al foil into a dry cell. The cathode active material and conductive additive (Na₂C₆O₆/C composite particles) were dispersed in the liquid electrolyte and coated onto Al foil. For comparison, the corresponding conventional Na metal cell was also fabricated by the conventional procedures of slurry coating, drying, laminating, packaging, and electrolyte injection.

Example 12: Metal Naphthalocyanine-RGO Hybrid Cathode of a Lithium Metal Battery

CuPc-coated graphene sheets were obtained by vaporizing CuPc in a chamber along with a graphene film (5 nm) prepared from spin coating of RGO-water suspension. The resulting coated film was cut and milled to produce CuPc-coated graphene sheets, which were used as a cathode active material in a lithium metal battery. This battery has a lithium metal foil as the anode active material and 1-3.6 M of LiClO₄ in propylene carbonate (PC) solution as the electrolyte.

Example 13: Preparation of MoS₂/RGO Hybrid Material as a Cathode Active Material of a Lithium Metal Battery

A wide variety of inorganic materials were investigated in this example. For instance, an ultra-thin MoS₂/RGO hybrid was synthesized by a one-step solvothermal reaction of (NH₄)₂MoS₄ and hydrazine in an N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solution of oxidized graphene oxide (GO) at 200° C. In a typical procedure, 22 mg of (NH₄)₂MoS₄ was added to 10 mg of GO dispersed in 10 ml of DMF. The mixture was sonicated at room temperature for approximately 10 min until a clear and homogeneous solution was obtained. After that, 0.1 ml of N₂H₄.H₂O was added. The reaction solution was further sonicated for 30 min before being transferred to a 40 mL Teflon-lined autoclave. The system was heated in an oven at 200° C. for 10 h. Product was collected by centrifugation at 8000 rpm for 5 min, washed with DI water and recollected by centrifugation. The washing step was repeated for at least 5 times to ensure that most DMF was removed. Finally, product was dried, mixed with liquid electrolyte and polymer gel electrolyte, separately, to produce wet active cathode mixture for coating onto an Al foil.

Example 14: Preparation of Two-Dimensional (2D) Layered Bi₂Se₃ Chalcogenide Nanoribbons

The preparation of (2D) layered Bi₂Se₃ chalcogenide nanoribbons is well-known in the art. For instance, Bi₂Se₃ nanoribbons were grown using the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) method. Nanoribbons herein produced are, on average, 30-55 nm thick with widths and lengths ranging from hundreds of nanometers to several micrometers. Larger nanoribbons were subjected to ball-milling for reducing the lateral dimensions (length and width) to below 200 nm. Nanoribbons prepared by these procedures (with or without the presence of graphene sheets or exfoliated graphite flakes) were used as a cathode active material of a lithium metal battery.

Example 15: MXenes Powder+Chemically Activated RGO

Selected MXenes, were produced by partially etching out certain elements from layered structures of metal carbides such as Ti₃AlC₂. For instance, an aqueous 1 M NH₄HF₂ was used at room temperature as the etchant for Ti₃AlC₂. Typically, MXene surfaces are terminated by O, OH, and/or F groups, which is why they are usually referred to as M_(n+1)X_(n)T_(x), where M is an early transition metal, X is C and/or N, T represents terminating groups (O, OH, and/or F), n=1, 2, or 3, and x is the number of terminating groups. The MXene materials investigated include Ti₂CT_(x), Nb₂CT_(x), V₂CT_(x), Ti₃CNT_(x), and Ta₄C₃T_(x). Typically, 35-95% MXene and 5-65% graphene sheets were mixed in a liquid electrolyte to form wet cathode active material mixture.

Example 16: Preparation of Graphene-Supported MnO₂ Cathode Active Material for a Lithium Battery and a Supercapacitor

The MnO₂ powder was synthesized by two methods (each with or without the presence of graphene sheets). In one method, a 0.1 mol/L KMnO₄ aqueous solution was prepared by dissolving potassium permanganate in deionized water. Meanwhile 13.32 g surfactant of high purity sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate was added in 300 mL iso-octane (oil) and stirred well to get an optically transparent solution. Then, 32.4 mL of 0.1 mol/L KMnO₄ solution and selected amounts of GO solution were added in the solution, which was ultrasonicated for 30 min to prepare a dark brown precipitate. The product was separated, washed several times with distilled water and ethanol, and dried at 80° C. for 12 h. The sample is graphene-supported MnO₂ in a powder form, which was mixed in a liquid electrolyte to form a wet cathode active material mixture, which was coated onto a current collector (carbon-protected Al foil).

Example 17: Graphene-Enhanced Nano Silicon Fabricated from TEOS as an Anode Active Material of a Lithium-Ion Battery

Dilute 1 wt. % N002-PS to 0.2 wt. % N002-PS by DI water, and place the diluted PS solution to the ultrasonic bath and ultrasonic process for 30 minutes. Gradually add TEOS (0.2 wt. % N002-PS:TEOS=5:2) while stirring the PS solution. Then, keep stirring for 24 hours to get a complete hydrolysis of TEOS. Dropwise add 10% NH₃.H₂O till the formation of gel, and the gel can be called as TP gel. Grind the TP gel to tiny particles. Oven dries at 120° C. for 2 hours, at 150° C. for 4 hours. Mix the dried TP particles with Mg in a ratio of 10:7. Use 20 times amount of 7 mm SS balls and ball mill under Argon protection, gradually increase the rotating speed to 250 rpm. Put certain amount of TPM powders in Nickel crucible and heat treatment at 680° C. Prepare certain amount of 2M HCl solution. Then gradually add heat treated TPM powders to the acid solution. Keep the reaction for 2-24 hours, and then put the turbid liquid to the ultrasonic bath and ultrasonic process for 1 hour. Pour out the suspension to the filtration system. Discard the bottom large particles. Use DI water to rinse three times. Dry the yellow paste and blend the yellow paste to powders. The as-prepared nano particle has a SSA value range of 30 m²/g to 200 m²/g due to different graphene contents.

A certain amount of the dried TPM particles was then put into a muffle furnace and calcined at 400° C.˜600° C. for 2 hours under air purging to remove the carbon content from the nanocomposite, producing graphene-free yellow-color silicon nano powders. Both Si nano powder and graphene-wrapped Si nano particles were used as a high-capacity anode active material.

Example 18: Cobalt Oxide (Co₃O₄) Particulates as an Anode Active Material

Although LiCoO₂ is a cathode active material, Co₃O₄ is an anode active material of a lithium-ion battery since LiCoO₂ is at an electrochemical potential of approximately +4.0 volts relative to Li/Li⁺ and Co₃O₄ is at an electrochemical potential of approximately +0.8 volts relative to Li/Li⁺.

An appropriate amount of inorganic salts Co(NO₃)₂.6H₂O and, subsequently, ammonia solution (NH₃.H₂O, 25 wt %) were slowly added into a GO suspension. The resulting precursor suspension was stirred for several hours under an argon flow to ensure a complete reaction. The obtained Co(OH)₂/graphene precursor suspension was divided into two portions. One portion was filtered and dried under vacuum at 70° C. to obtain a Co(OH)₂/graphene composite precursor. This precursor was calcined at 450° C. in air for 2 h to form the layered Co₃O₄/graphene composites, which are characterized by having Co₃O₄—coated graphene sheets overlapping one another. These Co₃O₄—coated graphene sheets are another high-capacity anode active material.

Example 19: Graphene-Enhanced Tin Oxide Particulates as an Anode Active Material

Tin oxide (SnO₂) nano particles, an anode active material, were obtained by the controlled hydrolysis of SnCl₄.5H₂O with NaOH using the following procedure: SnCl₄.5H₂O (0.95 g, 2.7 m-mol) and NaOH (0.212 g, 5.3 m-mol) were dissolved in 50 mL of distilled water each. The NaOH solution was added drop-wise under vigorous stirring to the tin chloride solution at a rate of 1 mL/min. This solution was homogenized by sonication for 5 min. Subsequently, the resulting hydrosol was reacted with the GO dispersion for 3 hours. To this mixed solution, few drops of 0.1 M of H₂SO₄ were added to flocculate the product. The precipitated solid was collected by centrifugation, washed with water and ethanol, and dried in vacuum. The dried product was heat-treated at 400° C. for 2 h under Ar atmosphere.

Example 20: Preparation of Graphene-Supported MnO₂ and NaMnO₂ Cathode Active Material for Sodium-Ion Cells

The MnO₂ powder was synthesized by two methods (each with or without the presence of graphene sheets). In one method, a 0.1 mol/L KMnO₄ aqueous solution was prepared by dissolving potassium permanganate in deionized water. Meanwhile 13.32 g surfactant of high purity sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate was added in 300 mL iso-octane (oil) and stirred well to get an optically transparent solution. Then, 32.4 mL of 0.1 mol/L KMnO₄ solution and selected amounts of GO solution were added in the solution, which was ultrasonicated for 30 min to prepare a dark brown precipitate. The product was separated, washed several times with distilled water and ethanol, and dried at 80° C. for 12 h. The sample is graphene-supported MnO₂ in a powder form, which was dispersed in a liquid electrolyte to form a slurry and coated onto a surface of Al foil.

Additionally, NaMnO₂ and NaMnO₂/graphene composite were synthesized by ball-milling mixtures of Na₂CO₃ and MnO₂ (at a molar ratio of 1:2), with or without graphene sheets, for 12 h followed by heating at 870° C. for 10 h.

Example 21: Preparation of Electrodes for Potassium Metal Cells

A sheet of potassium-coated graphene film was used as the anode active material while a layer of PVDF-bonded reduced graphene oxide (RGO) sheets, supplied from Angstron Materials, Inc. (Dayton, Ohio), was used as the cathode active material. The electrolyte used was 3.0 M of KClO₄ salt dissolved in a mixture of propylene carbonate and DOL (1/1 ratio). Charge-discharge curves were obtained at several current densities (from 50 mA/g to 50 A/g), corresponding to different C rates, with the resulting energy density and power density data measured and calculated.

Example 22: Preparation and Electrochemical Testing of Various Electrochemical Cells

For most of the anode and cathode active materials investigated, we prepared electrochemical cells (e.g. alkali metal-ion cells or alkali metal cells) using both the presently invented method and the conventional method.

With the conventional method, a typical anode composition includes 85 wt. % active material (e.g., Si— or Co₃O₄-coated graphene sheets), 7 wt. % acetylene black (Super-P), and 8 wt. % polyvinylidene fluoride binder (PVDF, 5 wt. % solid content) dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinoe (NMP). After coating the slurries on Cu foil, the electrodes were dried at 120° C. in vacuum for 2 h to remove the solvent. With the instant method, typically no binder resin is needed or used, saving 8% weight (reduced amount of non-active materials). Cathode layers are made in a similar manner (using Al foil as the cathode current collector) using the conventional slurry coating and drying procedures. An anode layer, separator layer (e.g. Celgard 2400 membrane), and a cathode layer are then laminated together and housed in a plastic-Al envelop. The cell is then injected with 1 M LiPF₆ electrolyte solution dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) (EC-DEC, 1:1 v/v). In some cells, ionic liquids were used as the liquid electrolyte. The cell assemblies were made in an argon-filled glove-box.

In some examples of the presently invented process, a wet anode electrode coated on a Cu foil, a porous separator layer, and a wet cathode electrode coated on an Al foil were laminated to form a battery assembly.

The cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements were carried out using an Arbin electrochemical workstation at a typical scanning rate of 1 mV/s. In addition, the electrochemical performances of various cells were also evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling at a current density of from 50 mA/g to 10 A/g. For long-term cycling tests, multi-channel battery testers manufactured by LAND were used.

In lithium-ion battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation.

Example 23: Representative Testing Results for Lithium Cells

For each sample, several current densities (representing charge/discharge rates) were imposed to determine the electrochemical responses, allowing for calculations of energy density and power density values required of the construction of a Ragone plot (power density vs. energy density). Shown in FIG. 3 are Ragone plots (gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. energy density) of lithium-ion battery cells containing graphite particles as the anode active material and carbon-coated LFP particles as the cathode active materials. Two of the 4 data curves are for the cells prepared according to an embodiment of instant invention and the other two by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes (roll-coating). Several significant observations can be made from these data:

Both the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and power densities of the lithium-ion battery cells prepared by the presently invented method (denoted as “inventive” in the figure legend) are significantly higher than those of their counterparts prepared via the conventional roll-coating method (denoted as “conventional”). A change from an anode thickness of 160 μm (coated on a flat solid Cu foil) to a thickness of 215 μm (all accommodated in pores of a Ni foam having 85% porosity) and a corresponding change in the cathode to maintain a balanced capacity ratio results in a gravimetric energy density increase from 165 Wh/kg to 225 Wh/kg. Even more surprisingly, the volumetric energy density is increased from 412 Wh/L to 627 Wh/L. This latter value of 627 Wh/L has never been previously achieved with a conventional lithium-ion battery containing a graphite anode and a lithium iron phosphate cathode.

These huge differences cannot be simply ascribed to the increases in the electrode thickness and the mass loading per se. The differences are likely due to the significantly higher active material mass loading per unit electrode cross-sectional area (not just mass loading) associated with the presently invented cells, reduced proportion of overhead (non-active) components relative to the active material weight/volume, no need to have a binder resin, and surprisingly better utilization of the electrode active material (most, if not all, of the graphite particles and LFP particles contributing to the lithium ion storage capacity; no dry pockets or ineffective spots in the electrode, particularly under high charge/discharge rate conditions). These have not been taught, suggested, or even slightly hinted in the art of lithium-ion battery. Furthermore, the maximum power density is increased from 621 W/kg to 1,123 W/kg. This might have been due to significantly reduced internal resistance against electron transport and lithium ion transport.

FIG. 4 shows the Ragone plots (both gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. gravimetric and volumetric energy density) of two cells, both containing graphene-embraced Si nano particles as the anode active material and LiCoO₂ nano particles as the cathode active material. The experimental data were obtained from the Li-ion battery cells that were prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes.

These data indicate that both the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and power densities of the battery cells prepared by the presently invented method are significantly higher than those of their counterparts prepared via the conventional method. Again, the differences are huge. The conventionally made cells exhibit a gravimetric energy density of 284 Wh/kg and volumetric energy density of 741 Wh/L, but the presently invented cells deliver 411 Wh/kg and 1,1921 Wh/L, respectively. The cell-level energy density of 1,192 Wh/L has never been previously achieved with any rechargeable lithium-ion battery. The power densities as high as 1,544 W/kg and 4,477 W/L are also unprecedented for lithium-ion batteries. The power densities of the cells prepared via the presently invented process are always significantly higher than those of the corresponding cells prepared by conventional processes.

These energy density and power density differences are mainly due to the high active material mass loading (>25 mg/cm² in the anode and >45 mg/cm² in the cathode) associated with the presently invented cells, reduced proportion of overhead (non-active) components relative to the active material weight/volume, no need to have a binder resin, the ability of the inventive method to better utilize the active material particles (all particles being accessible to liquid electrolyte and fast ion and electron kinetics), and to more effectively pack active material particles in the pores of the foamed current collectors.

Shown in FIG. 5 are Ragone plots of lithium metal batteries containing a lithium foil as the anode active material, dilithium rhodizonate (Li₂C₆O₆) as the cathode active material, and lithium salt (LiPF₆)—PC/DEC as organic liquid electrolyte. The data are for both lithium metal cells prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes. These data indicate that both the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and power densities of the lithium metal cells prepared by the presently invented method are significantly higher than those of their counterparts prepared via the conventional method. Again, the differences are huge and are likely due to the significantly higher active material mass loading (not just mass loading) associated with the presently invented cells, reduced proportion of overhead (non-active) components relative to the active material weight/volume, no need to have a binder resin, and surprisingly better utilization of the electrode active material (most, if not all, of the active material contributing to the lithium ion storage capacity; no dry pockets or ineffective spots in the electrode, particularly under high charge/discharge rate conditions).

Quite noteworthy and unexpected is the observation that the gravimetric energy density of the presently invented lithium metal-organic cathode cell is as high as 522 Wh/kg, higher than those of all rechargeable lithium-metal or lithium-ion batteries ever reported (recall that current Li-ion batteries store 150-220 Wh/kg based on the total cell weight). Also quite astonishing is the observation that the volumetric energy density of such an organic cathode-based battery is as high as 941 Wh/L, an unprecedentedly high value that tops those of all lithium-ion and lithium metal batteries ever reported. Furthermore, for organic cathode active material-based lithium batteries featuring a polymer gel electrolyte, a gravimetric power density of 1,653 W/kg and maximum volumetric power density of 2,976 W/L would have been un-thinkable.

It is of significance to point out that reporting the energy and power densities per weight of active material alone on a Ragone plot, as did by many researchers, may not give a realistic picture of the performance of the assembled supercapacitor cell. The weights of other device components also must be taken into account. These overhead components, including current collectors, electrolyte, separator, binder, connectors, and packaging, are non-active materials and do not contribute to the charge storage amounts. They only add weights and volumes to the device. Hence, it is desirable to reduce the relative proportion of overhead component weights and increase the active material proportion. However, it has not been possible to achieve this objective using conventional battery production processes. The present invention overcomes this long-standing, most serious problem in the art of lithium batteries.

In commercial lithium-ion batteries having an electrode thickness of 100-200 μm, the weight proportion of the anode active material (e.g. graphite or carbon) in a lithium-ion battery is typically from 12% to 17%, and that of the cathode active material (for inorganic material, such as LiMn₂O₄) from 22% to 41%, or from 10% to 15% for organic or polymeric. Hence, a factor of 3 to 4 is frequently used to extrapolate the energy or power densities of the device (cell) from the properties based on the active material weight alone. In most of the scientific papers, the properties reported are typically based on the active material weight alone and the electrodes are typically very thin (<<100 μm, and mostly <<50 μm). The active material weight is typically from 5% to 10% of the total device weight, which implies that the actual cell (device) energy or power densities may be obtained by dividing the corresponding active material weight-based values by a factor of 10 to 20. After this factor is taken into account, the properties reported in these papers do not really look any better than those of commercial batteries. Thus, one must be very careful when it comes to read and interpret the performance data of batteries reported in the scientific papers and patent applications.

Example 24: Achievable Electrode Thickness and its Effect on Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Battery Cells

One might be tempted to think the electrode thickness of a lithium battery is a design parameter that can be freely adjusted for optimization of device performance. Contrary to this perception, in reality, the lithium battery electrode thickness is manufacturing-limited and one cannot produce electrodes of good structural integrity that exceed certain thickness level in a real industrial manufacturing environment (e.g. a roll-to-roll coating facility). The conventional battery electrode design is based on coating an electrode layer on a flat metal current collector, which has several major problems: (a) A thick coating on solid Cu foil or Al foil requires a long drying time (requiring a heating zone that is 30-100 meters long). (b) Thick electrodes tend to get delaminated or cracked upon drying and subsequent handling, and even with a resin binder proportion as high as 15-20% to hopefully improve the electrode integrity this problem remains a major limiting factor. Thus, such an industry practice of roll-coating of slurry on a solid flat current collector does not allow for high active material mass loadings. (c) A thick electrode prepared by coating, drying, and compression makes it difficult for electrolyte (injected into a cell after the cell is made) to permeate through the electrode and, as such, a thick electrode would mean many dry pockets or spots that are not wetted by the electrolyte. This would imply a poor utilization of the active materials. The instant invention solves these long-standing, critically important issues associated with lithium batteries.

Shown in FIG. 6 are the cell-level gravimetric (Wh/kg) and volumetric energy densities (Wh/L) of lithium metal cells plotted over the achievable cathode thickness range of the MnO₂/RGO cathode prepared via the conventional method without delamination and cracking and those by the presently invented method. In this figure, the data points are labelled as the gravimetric (♦) and volumetric (▴) energy density of the conventional Li—MnO₂/RGO batteries and the gravimetric (▪) and volumetric (x) energy density of the presently invented ones.

The electrodes can be fabricated up to a thickness of 100-200 μm using the conventional slurry coating process. However, in contrast, there is no theoretical limit on the electrode thickness that can be achieved with the presently invented method. Typically, the practical electrode thickness is from 10 μm to 1000 μm, more typically from 100 μm to 800 μm, and most typically from 200 μm to 600 μm.

These data further confirm the surprising effectiveness of the presently invented method in producing ultra-thick lithium battery electrodes not previously achievable. These ultra-thick electrodes in lithium metal batteries lead to exceptionally high cathode active material mass loading, typically significantly >25 mg/cm² (more typically >30 mg/cm², further typically >40 mg/cm², often >50 mg/cm², and even >60 mg/cm²) for an inorganic cathode active material. These high active material mass loadings have not been possible to obtain with conventional lithium batteries made by the slurry coating processes. These high active material mass loadings led to exceptionally high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities that otherwise have not been previously achieved (e.g. 502 Wh/kg and 1029 Wh/L of the presently invented lithium metal battery) given the same battery system.

Example 25: Achievable Active Material Weight Percentage in a Cell and its Effect on Electrochemical Performance of Lithium Battery Cells

Because the weight of the anode and cathode active materials combined accounts for up to about 30%-50% of the total mass of the packaged commercial lithium batteries, a factor of 30%-50% must be used to extrapolate the energy or power densities of the device from the performance data of the active materials alone. Thus, the energy density of 500 Wh/kg of combined graphite and NMC (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide) weights will translate to about 150-250 Wh/kg of the packaged cell weight. However, this extrapolation is only valid for electrodes with thicknesses and densities similar to those of commercial electrodes (150 μm or about 15 mg/cm² of the graphite anode and 30 mg/cm² of NMC cathode). An electrode of the same active material that is thinner or lighter will mean an even lower energy or power density based on the cell weight. Thus, it would be desirable to produce a lithium-ion battery cell having a high active material proportion. Unfortunately, it has not been previously possible to achieve a total active material proportion greater than 45% by weight in most of the commercial lithium-ion batteries.

The presently invented method enables the lithium batteries to go well beyond these limits for all active materials investigated. As a matter of fact, the instant invention makes it possible to elevate the active material proportion above 90% if so desired; but typically from 45% to 85%, more typically from 40% to 80%, even more typically from 40% to 75%, and most typically from 50% to 70%.

Shown in FIG. 7 are the cell-level gravimetric and volumetric energy densities of the graphite/NMC cells prepared by the presently invented method and the conventional roll-coating method. These data further demonstrate the implications of our ability to take the total active material mass beyond 50%, enabling the attainment of unexpectedly high gravimetric and volumetric energy densities that have not been previously possible given the same lithium battery system (e.g. elevated from 190 Wh/kg to 281 Wh/kg and from 510 Wh/L to 959 Wh/L).

Example 26: Representative Testing Results of Sodium Metal and Potassium Metal Cells

Shown in FIG. 8 are Ragone plots (gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. energy density) of Na-ion battery cells containing hard carbon particles as the anode active material and carbon-coated Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃ particles as the cathode active materials. Two of the 4 data curves are for the cells prepared according to an embodiment of instant invention and the other two by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes (roll-coating). Several significant observations can be made from these data:

Both the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and power densities of the sodium-ion battery cells prepared by the presently invented method (denoted as “inventive” in the figure legend) are significantly higher than those of their counterparts prepared via the conventional roll-coating method (denoted as “conventional”). A change from an anode thickness of 150 μm (coated on a flat solid Cu foil) to a thickness of 225 μm and a corresponding change in the cathode to maintain a balanced capacity ratio results in a gravimetric energy density increase from 115 Wh/kg to 155 Wh/kg. Even more surprisingly, the volumetric energy density is increased from 287 Wh/L to 388 Wh/L. This latter value of 388 Wh/L is exceptional for a sodium-ion battery using a hard carbon anode and a sodium transition metal phosphate-type cathode.

These huge differences cannot be simply ascribed to the increases in the electrode thickness and the mass loading. The differences are likely due to the significantly higher active material mass loading (relative to other materials) associated with the presently invented cells, reduced proportion of overhead (non-active) components relative to the active material weight/volume, no need to have a binder resin, and surprisingly better utilization of the electrode active material (most, if not all, of the hard carbon particles and Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃ particles contributing to the sodium ion storage capacity; no dry pockets or ineffective spots in the electrode, particularly under high charge/discharge rate conditions).

The presently invented sodium-ion cells also deliver significantly higher energy densities than those of conventional cells. This is also unexpected.

FIG. 9 shows the Ragone plots (both gravimetric and volumetric power density vs. gravimetric and volumetric energy density) of two cells, both containing graphene-embraced Sn nano particles as the anode active material and NaFePO₄ nano particles as the cathode active material. The experimental data were obtained from the Na-ion battery cells that were prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes.

These data indicate that both the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and power densities of the sodium battery cells prepared by the presently invented method are significantly higher than those of their counterparts prepared via the conventional method. Again, the differences are huge. The conventionally made cells exhibit a gravimetric energy density of 185 Wh/kg and volumetric energy density of 388 Wh/L, but the presently invented cells deliver 305 Wh/kg and 640 Wh/L, respectively. The cell-level volumetric energy density of 640 Wh/L has never been previously achieved with any rechargeable sodium batteries having a polymer gel electrolyte. In fact, even the state-of-the-art lithium-ion battery rarely exhibits a volumetric energy density higher than 750 Wh/L. The power densities as high as 1230 W/kg and 3,211 W/L are also unprecedented for typically higher-energy lithium-ion batteries, let alone for sodium-ion batteries.

These energy density and power density differences are mainly due to the high active material mass loading (>25 mg/cm² in the anode and >45 mg/cm² in the cathode) associated with the presently invented cells, reduced proportion of overhead (non-active) components relative to the active material weight/volume, no need to have a binder resin, the ability of the inventive method to better utilize the active material particles (all particles being accessible to liquid electrolyte and fast ion and electron kinetics), and to more effectively pack active material particles in the pores of the foamed current collectors.

Shown in FIG. 10 are Ragone plots of sodium metal batteries containing a sodium foil as the anode active material, disodium rhodizonate (Na₂C₆O₆) as the cathode active material, and lithium salt (NaPF₆)—PC/DEC as organic liquid electrolyte. The data are for both sodium metal cells prepared by the presently invented method and those by the conventional slurry coating of electrodes. These data indicate that both the gravimetric and volumetric energy densities and power densities of the sodium metal cells prepared by the presently invented method are significantly higher than those of their counterparts prepared via the conventional method. Again, the differences are huge and are likely due to the significantly higher active material mass loading associated with the presently invented cells, reduced proportion of overhead (non-active) components relative to the active material weight/volume, no need to have a binder resin, surprisingly better utilization of the electrode active material (most, if not all, of the active material contributing to the sodium ion storage capacity; no dry pockets or ineffective spots in the electrode, particularly under high charge/discharge rate conditions), and the surprising ability of the inventive method to more effectively pack active material particles in the pores of the foamed current collector.

Quite noteworthy and unexpected is the observation that the gravimetric energy density of the presently invented sodium metal-organic cathode cell is as high as 310 Wh/kg, higher than those of all rechargeable sodium metal or sodium-ion batteries ever reported (recall that current Na-ion batteries typically store 100-150 Wh/kg based on the total cell weight). Furthermore, for organic cathode active material-based sodium batteries (even for corresponding lithium batteries), a gravimetric power density of 1,250 W/kg and volumetric power density of 2,508 W/L would have been un-thinkable.

It is of significance to point out that reporting the energy and power densities per weight of active material alone on a Ragone plot, as did by many researchers, may not give a realistic picture of the performance of the assembled battery cell. The weights of other device components also must be taken into account. These overhead components, including current collectors, electrolyte, separator, binder, connectors, and packaging, are non-active materials and do not contribute to the charge storage amounts. They only add weights and volumes to the device. Hence, it is desirable to reduce the relative proportion of overhead component weights and increase the active material proportion. However, it has not been possible to achieve this objective using conventional battery production processes. The present invention overcomes this long-standing, most serious problem in the art of lithium batteries.

In commercial lithium-ion batteries having an electrode thickness of 150 μm, the weight proportion of the anode active material (e.g. graphite or carbon) in a lithium-ion battery is typically from 12% to 17%, and that of the cathode active material (for inorganic material, such as LiMn₂O₄) from 22% to 41%, or from 10% to 15% for organic or polymeric. The corresponding weight fractions in Na-ion batteries are expected to be very similar since both the anode active materials and cathode active materials have similar physical densities between two types of batteries and the ratio of cathode specific capacity to the anode specific capacity is also similar. Hence, a factor of 3 to 4 may be used to extrapolate the energy or power densities of the sodium cell from the properties based on the active material weight alone. In most of the scientific papers, the properties reported are typically based on the active material weight alone and the electrodes are typically very thin (<<100 μm and mostly <<50 μm). The active material weight is typically from 5% to 10% of the total device weight, which implies that the actual cell (device) energy or power densities may be obtained by dividing the corresponding active material weight-based values by a factor of 10 to 20. After this factor is taken into account, the properties reported in these papers do not really look any better than those of commercial batteries. Thus, one must be very careful when it comes to read and interpret the performance data of batteries reported in the scientific papers and patent applications.

The Ragone plot of a series of K-ion cells prepared by the conventional slurry coating process and the Ragone plot of corresponding K-ion cells prepared by the presently invented process are summarized and contrasted in FIG. 11. These data again confirm that the presently invented process works well for making both Na and K metal batteries having ultra-high energy densities and power densities. Similarly, lithium-ion capacitors or sodium-ion capacitors prepared according to the instant process also deliver a higher energy density and higher power density. 

We claim:
 1. A process for producing an electrochemical cell, said process comprising: (A) continuously depositing a wet cathode active material mixture onto at least a surface of a cathode current collector to form a wet cathode electrode, wherein said wet cathode active material mixture contains 30% to 85% by volume of a cathode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; (B) continuously depositing a wet anode active material mixture onto at least a surface of an anode current collector to form a wet anode electrode, wherein said wet anode active material mixture contains 30% to 85% by weight of an anode active material and 0% to 15% by volume of a conductive additive dispersed in a second liquid or polymer gel electrolytes; and (C) combining said wet cathode electrode or a portion thereof and said wet anode electrode or a portion thereof to form said electrochemical cell; wherein said anode electrode and/or said cathode electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm.
 2. The process of claim 1, wherein step (A) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, said wet cathode active material mixture to said at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery; and/or wherein step (B) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, said wet anode active material mixture to said at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery.
 3. A process for producing an electrochemical cell, said process comprising: (A) continuously depositing a first wet electrode active material mixture onto at least a surface of a first current collector to form a first wet electrode, wherein said first wet electrode active material mixture contains a first electrode active material, an optional conductive additive, and a first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte; wherein said first wet electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm; (B) introducing a second electrode having a second current collector that has two opposed primary surfaces wherein at least one of the two primary surfaces is deposited with a layer of a second active material; and (C) combining said first wet electrode or a portion thereof and said second electrode or a portion thereof to form said electrochemical cell, wherein one of said first wet electrode or the second electrode is a cathode and the other is an anode.
 4. A process for producing an electrochemical cell, said process comprising (A) depositing a first wet active material mixture onto at least a surface of a first current collector to form a first wet electrode, wherein the first wet active material mixture contains a first active material, an optional conductive additive, and a first polymer gel electrolyte; wherein the first wet electrode has a thickness from 200 μm to 3,000 μm; (B) introducing a second electrode having a second current collector that has two opposed primary surfaces wherein at least one of the two primary surfaces is deposited with a layer of a second active material; and (C) combining the first wet electrode or a portion thereof and the second electrode or a portion thereof to form said electrochemical cell.
 5. The process of claim 3, wherein step (A) includes delivering, continuously or intermittently on demand, said wet cathode active material mixture to said at least a surface through spraying, printing, coating, casting, conveyor film delivery, and/or roller surface delivery.
 6. The process of claim 1, wherein said step (C) comprises continuously laminating said anode electrode, a separator layer, and said cathode electrode into a multi-layer laminated electrochemical cell having a length greater than 10 cm.
 7. The process of claim 1, wherein said step (C) comprises cutting said anode electrode into multiple anode layers and cutting said cathode electrode into multiple cathode layers and assembling at least an anode layer and at least a cathode layer to form an electrochemical cell.
 8. The process of claim 1, wherein said wet cathode active material mixture and/or said wet anode active material mixture contains a polymer binder.
 9. The process of claim 1, wherein said first polymer gel electrolyte or said second polymer gel electrolyte contains a reactive monomer or oligomer that gets polymerized or cured after said cathode electrode or said anode electrode is formed.
 10. The process of claim 1, wherein said first polymer gel electrolyte contains a polymer that bonds particles of said cathode active material together or bonds particles of said cathode active material to said cathode current collector when said cathode electrode is formed.
 11. The process of claim 1, wherein said second polymer gel electrolyte contains a polymer that bonds particles of said anode active material together or bonds particles of said anode active material to said anode current collector when said anode electrode is formed.
 12. The process of claim 3, wherein said step (C) comprises continuously laminating said anode electrode, a separator layer, and said cathode electrode into a multi-layer laminated electrochemical cell having a length greater than 10 cm.
 13. The process of claim 3, wherein said step (C) comprises cutting said anode electrode into multiple anode layers and cutting said cathode electrode into multiple cathode layers and assembling at least an anode layer and at least a cathode layer to form an electrochemical cell.
 14. The process of claim 3, wherein said wet cathode active material mixture contains a polymer binder.
 15. The process of claim 3, wherein said first polymer gel electrolyte contains a reactive monomer or oligomer that gets polymerized or cured after said cathode electrode is formed.
 16. The process of claim 3, wherein said first polymer gel electrolyte contains a polymer that bonds particles of said cathode active material together or bonds particles of said cathode active material to said cathode current collector when said cathode electrode is formed.
 17. The process of claim 1, wherein said first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte or said second liquid or polymer gel electrolyte contains from 2.5 M to 12 M of of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent.
 18. The process of claim 1, wherein said first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte or said second liquid or polymer gel electrolyte contains from 5.0 M to 12 M of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent.
 19. The process of claim 3, wherein said first liquid or polymer gel electrolyte contains from 2.5 M to 12 M of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent.
 20. The process of claim 1, wherein said first liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₁, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to depositing said wet cathode active material mixture and said step (A) includes a procedure of removing a portion of said liquid solvent after said depositing to increase a metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₂, wherein M₂>M₁.
 21. The process of claim 1, wherein said second liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₃, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to depositing said wet anode active material mixture and said step (B) includes a procedure of removing a portion of said liquid solvent after said depositing to increase a metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₄, wherein M₄>M₃.
 22. The process of claim 3, wherein said first liquid electrolyte contains an initial concentration, M₅, of a metal salt dissolved in a liquid solvent prior to depositing said wet cathode active material mixture and said step (A) includes a procedure of removing a portion of said liquid solvent after said depositing to increase a metal salt concentration to a final concentration, M₆, wherein M₆>M₅.
 23. The process of claim 1, wherein said first or second polymer gel electrolyte contains an ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, a sulfonated polymer, or a combination thereof.
 24. The process of claim 3, wherein said first polymer gel electrolyte contains an ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazenex, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a sulfonated derivative thereof, a sulfonated polymer, or a combination thereof.
 25. The process of claim 1, wherein said first or second polymer gel electrolyte contains an ion-conducting polymer selected from the group consisting of poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroalkoxy derivatives of polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated polysulfone, sulfonated poly(ether ketone), sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), sulfonated polystyrene, sulfonated polyimide, sulfonated styrene-butadiene copolymers, sulfonated poly chloro-trifluoroethylene (PCTFE), sulfonated perfluoroethylene-propylene copolymer (FEP), sulfonated ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer (ECTFE), sulfonated polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF), sulfonated copolymers of polyvinylidenefluoride with hexafluoropropene and tetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), sulfonated polybenzimidazole (PBI), their chemical derivatives, copolymers, blends and combinations thereof.
 26. The process of claim 3, wherein said first polymer gel electrolyte contains an ion-conducting polymer selected from the group consisting of poly(perfluoro sulfonic acid), sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated perfluoroalkoxy derivatives of polytetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated polysulfone, sulfonated poly(ether ketone), sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), sulfonated polystyrene, sulfonated polyimide, sulfonated styrene-butadiene copolymers, sulfonated poly chloro-trifluoroethylene (PCTFE), sulfonated perfluoroethylene-propylene copolymer (FEP), sulfonated ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer (ECTFE), sulfonated polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF), sulfonated copolymers of polyvinylidenefluoride with hexafluoropropene and tetrafluoroethylene, sulfonated copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE), sulfonated polybenzimidazole (PBI), their chemical derivatives, copolymers, blends and combinations thereof.
 27. The process of claim 1, wherein said electrochemical cell is a lithium-ion battery or lithium-ion capacitor and said anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) particles of natural graphite, artificial graphite, meso-carbon microbeads (MCMB), and carbon; (b) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), iron (Fe), and cadmium (Cd); (c) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, or Cd with other elements, wherein said alloys or compounds are stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric; (d) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Ti, Mn, or Cd, and their mixtures or composites; (e) pre-lithiated versions thereof; (f) pre-lithiated graphene sheets; and combinations thereof.
 28. The process of claim 1, wherein said alkali metal battery is a sodium-ion battery or sodium-ion capacitor and said anode active material contains an alkali intercalation compound selected from petroleum coke, carbon black, amorphous carbon, activated carbon, hard carbon, soft carbon, templated carbon, hollow carbon nanowires, hollow carbon sphere, titanates, NaTi₂(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇, Na₂C₈H₄O₄, Na₂TP, Na_(x)TiO₂ (x=0.2 to 1.0), Na₂C₈H₄O₄, carboxylate based materials, C₈H₄Na₂O₄, C₈H₆O₄, C₈H₅NaO₄, C₈Na₂F₄O₄, C₁₀H₂Na₄O₈, C₁₄H₄O₆, C₁₄H₄Na₄O₈, or a combination thereof.
 29. The process of claim 1, wherein the alkali metal battery is a sodium-ion battery or sodium-ion capacitor and said anode active material contains an alkali intercalation compound selected from the following groups of materials: (a) sodium- or potassium-doped silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), and mixtures thereof; (b) sodium- or potassium-containing alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Co, Ni, Mn, Cd, and their mixtures; (c) sodium- or potassium-containing oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, tellurides, or antimonides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Fe, Ti, Co, Ni, Mn, Cd, and mixtures or composites thereof; (d) sodium or potassium salts; and (e) graphene sheets pre-loaded with sodium or potassium.
 30. The process of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material contains a lithium intercalation compound or lithium absorbing compound selected from the group consisting of lithium cobalt oxide, doped lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, doped lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, doped lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, doped lithium vanadium oxide, lithium mixed-metal oxides, lithium iron phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium mixed-metal phosphates, metal sulfides, lithium polysulfide, and combinations thereof.
 31. The process of claim 3, wherein said cathode active material contains a lithium intercalation compound or lithium absorbing compound selected from the group consisting of lithium cobalt oxide, doped lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, doped lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, doped lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, doped lithium vanadium oxide, lithium mixed-metal oxides, lithium iron phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium mixed-metal phosphates, metal sulfides, lithium polysulfide, and combinations thereof.
 32. The process of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material contains a sodium intercalation compound or a potassium intercalation compound selected from NaFePO₄, Na_((1-x))K_(x)PO₄, KFePO₄, Na_(0.7)FePO₄, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na₂FePO₄F, NaFeF₃, NaVPO₄F, KVPO₄F, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, NaV₆O₁₅, Na_(x)VO₂, Na_(0.33)V₂O₅, Na_(x)CoO₂, Na_(2/3)[Ni_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, Na_(x)(Fe_(1/2)Mn_(1/2))O₂, Na_(x)MnO₂, k-MnO₂, Na_(x)K_((1-x))MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂/C, Na₄Mn₉O₁₈, NaFe₂Mn(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇, Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3)O₂, Cu_(0.56)Ni_(0.44)HCF, NiHCF, Na_(x)MnO₂, NaCrO₂, KCrO₂, Na₃Ti₂(PO₄)₃, NiCo₂O₄, Ni₃S₂/FeS₂, Sb₂O₄, Na₄Fe(CN)₆/C, NaV_(1-x)Cr_(x)PO₄F, Se_(z)S_(y), y/z=0.01 to 100, Se, sodium polysulfide, sulfur, Alluaudites, or a combination thereof, wherein x is from 0.1 to 1.0.
 33. The process of claim 3, wherein said cathode active material contains a sodium intercalation compound or a potassium intercalation compound selected from NaFePO₄, Na_((1-x))K_(x)PO₄, KFePO₄, Na_(0.7)FePO₄, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na₂FePO₄F, NaFeF₃, NaVPO₄F, KVPO₄F, Na₃V₂(PO₄)₂F₃, Na_(1.5)VOPO₄F_(0.5), Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, NaV₆O₁₅, Na_(x)VO₂, Na_(0.33)V₂O₅, Na_(x)CoO₂, Na_(2/3)[Ni_(1/3)Mn_(2/3)]O₂, Na_(x)(Fe_(1/2)Mn_(1/2))O₂, Na_(x)MnO₂, k-MnO₂, Na_(x)K_((1-x))MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂, Na_(0.44)MnO₂/C, Na₄Mn₉O₁₈, NaFe₂Mn(PO₄)₃, Na₂Ti₃O₇, Ni_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)Co_(1/3)O₂, Cu_(0.56)Ni_(0.44)HCF, NiHCF, Na_(x)MnO₂, NaCrO₂, KCrO₂, Na₃Ti₂(PO₄)₃, NiCo₂O₄, Ni₃S₂/FeS₂, Sb₂O₄, Na₄Fe(CN)₆/C, NaV_(1-x)Cr_(x)PO₄F, Se_(z)S_(y), y/z=0.01 to 100, Se, sodium polysulfide, sulfur, Alluaudites, or a combination thereof, wherein x is from 0.1 to 1.0.
 34. The process of claim 1, wherein said first liquid electrolyte and/or said second liquid electrolyte contains a lithium salt or sodium salt dissolved in a liquid solvent and wherein said liquid solvent is water, an organic solvent, an ionic liquid, or a mixture of an organic solvent and an ionic liquid.
 35. The process of claim 3, wherein said first liquid electrolyte and/or said second liquid electrolyte contains a lithium salt or sodium salt dissolved in a liquid solvent and wherein said liquid solvent is water, an organic solvent, an ionic liquid, or a mixture of an organic solvent and an ionic liquid.
 36. The process of claim 27, wherein said pre-lithiated graphene sheets are selected from pre-lithiated versions of pristine graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene fluoride, graphene chloride, graphene bromide, graphene iodide, hydrogenated graphene, nitrogenated graphene, boron-doped graphene, nitrogen-doped graphene, chemically functionalized graphene, a physically or chemically activated or etched version thereof, or a combination thereof.
 37. The process of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material comprises an alkali metal intercalation compound or alkali metal-absorbing compound selected from an inorganic material, an organic or polymeric material, a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide, or a combination thereof.
 38. The process of claim 37, wherein said metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide is selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.
 39. The process of claim 37, wherein said inorganic material is selected from sulfur, sulfur compound, lithium polysulfide, transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof.
 40. The process of claim 37, wherein said inorganic material is selected from TiS₂, TaS₂, MoS₂, NbSe₃, MnO₂, CoO₂, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.
 41. The process of claim 37, wherein said metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide contains a vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO₂, Li_(x)VO₂, V₂O₅, Li_(x)V₂O₅, V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₈, Li_(x)V₃O₇, V₄O₉, Li_(x)V₄O₉, V₆O₁₃, Li_(x)V₆O₁₃, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x<5.
 42. The process of claim 37, wherein said metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide is selected from a layered compound LiMO₂, spinel compound LiM₂O₄, olivine compound LiMPO₄, silicate compound Li₂MSiO₄, Tavorite compound LiMPO₄F, borate compound LiMBO₃, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.
 43. The process of claim 37, wherein said inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.
 44. The process of claim 37, wherein said organic material or polymeric material is selected from Poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, Quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, Tetracyanoquino-dimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS₂)₃]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, Hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), Hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN)₆), 5-Benzylidene hydantoin, Isatine lithium salt, Pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi₄), N,N′-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N′-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N′-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li₄C₆O₆, Li₂C₆O₆, Li₆C₆O₆, or a combination thereof.
 45. The process of claim 44, wherein said thioether polymer is selected from Poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), Poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing Poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, Poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), Poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).
 46. The process of claim 37, wherein said organic material contains a phthalocyanine compound selected from copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof. 